tUt 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


% 


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Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 




BV  2100  .W47 

Whitley,  William  Thomas, 
1861-1947. 

Missionary  achievement 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/missionaryachievOOwhit 


MISSIONARY  ACHIEVEMENT 


MISSIONARY  . . 
ACHIEVEMENT 


A SURVEY  . . . 

OF 

WORLD-WIDE  . . 

EVANGELISATION 


BASED  ON  THE  . 

GAY  LECTURES,  1907 


W.  T.  WHITLEY 

M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.Hist.S. 


FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  TORONTO 


So,  still  within  this  life, 

Though  lifted  o’er  its  strife. 

Let  me  discern,  compare,  pronounce  at  last, 

“This  rage  was  right  i’  the  main. 

That  acquiescence  vain, 

The  Future  I may  face  now  I have  proved  the  Past.” 

For  more  is  not  reserved 
To  man,  with  soul  just  nerved 
To  act  to-morrow  what  he  learns  to-day  ; 

Here,  work  enough  to  watch 
The  Master  work,  and  catch 
Hints  of  the  proper  craft,  tricks  of  the  tool’s  true  play. 

Browning. 


TO 


THE  MEMORY  OF 

HARRY  GEORGE  WHITLEY 

SAILOR  MISSIONARY  ON  THE  CONGO 


1883 


Preface 


LIFELONG  interest  in  missions  was  in- 


creased  by  an  invitation  to  co-operate  in 
the  training  of  candidates  for  foreign  service.  To 
gain  some  special  knowledge  for  this,  a winter 
was  spent  on  several  mission  fields  in  India.  This 
led  to  fresh  duties  as  Secretary  of  a foreign  com- 
mittee, and  Editor  of  its  organ. 

Attention  was  soon  directed  to  the  history  of 
missionary  enterprise  in  the  past.  Then  came  an 
opportunity  to  clarify  thought  on  the  subject,  by 
a call  to  speak  to  hundreds  of  students  for  the 
ministry  at  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary  in  Louisville.  Since  this  institution 
keeps  the  claim  of  foreign  service  well  to  the 
front,  it  was  decided  that  the  Gay  Lectures  for 
1907  should  deal  with  the  story  of  missionary 
achievement  in  five  continents.  This  led  to  the 


vii 


Preface 


viii 

special  study  of  scores  of  works  by  masters  of 
their  subjects. 

The  Lectures  have  undergone  careful  revision, 
and  in  their  present  form  will  prove  of  interest  to 
the  Lord’s  people  generally.  An  enlarged  list  of 
books  for  reference  is  appended  for  those  who  wish 
to  continue  the  study  of  this  important  subject. 

The  author  trusts  that  the  Owner  of  the  vine- 
yard will  forgive,  where  His  plans  for  the  world’s 
husbandry  have  been  here  misconceived  ; and  that 
God  will  prompt  others  to  study  them  more  closely, 
and  expound  them  more  powerfully.  Meantime  it 
will  be  his  joy  if  some  who  read  these  pages  may 
be  quickened  to  hear  the  call  of  the  Master,  who 
ever  comes  seeking  helpers,  and  may  go  and  labour 
in  His  vineyard  before  the  precious  fruit  perish. 


Contents 


INTRODUCTION 

PA8B 

Christianity  essentially  missionary — A moral  failure — The  charge 
to  enlighten  the  Nations — ^Victories  and  Defeats — Three  crucial 
centuries — This  age  alert — Through  the  Continents  of  the 
World  ........  xiii 


I.  FAILURE  IN  ASIA 

The  Study  of  Anatolia  and  Arabia  postponed — Failure  of  Asiatic 

Christianity — Our  Religion  met  by  four  great  nations  . . 3 

I.  Jews 

The  Rejected  Messiah — The  Priests  and  the  Pharisees — The  Jewish 
Christians — Clementines — ^The  error  of  Outward  Continuity 
— Characteristics  — Minority  — Muhammad  influenced  by 
Jewish  Christians — Legacies  to  Christianity  : — The  teaching 
of  Jesus  ; Professional  Missionaries  ; Scripture  ; Worship ; 
Christ  the  focus  of  history — Dubious  later  gifts  . . 4 

2.  Sybiaes,  Armeniaes,  aed  Peesiaes 

Aramaic — Edessa — A Gospel  harmony — A philosopher  won — 

A Church  of  Celibates — Armenia — A converted  king — Persian 
revolution — The  Apostle  Thomas  in  Baluchistan — Zoroastrian 
revival — Persecution — Revised  Syriac  Bible — A Persian 
church — ^No  Persian  Bible — Revised  constitution — Muslim 
rule — Christianity  again  becomes  missionary — Local  influence 
on  Islam  . . . . . . .14 


3.  Iedia,  South  aed  North 

Emigration  to  Cochin — No  Tamil  version — The  Ganges  valley — 

The  Buddha — Establishment  of  Buddhism — A missionary 
king — Brahmans  and  Christians — Loans  from  Christianity — 
Salvation  by  faith — Disappearance  of  Buddhism — The  Bible 
of  the  Ramaites — Second  borrowing  from  Christianity — The 
Tamil  leaven  . . . . . . .27 

4.  China,  Buddhist  aed  Confucian 

An  imported  religion — Taoism  as  a home  product — Arrival  of 
Persian  missionaries — ^Native  clergy — Patriotic  opposition — 
Second  attempt  under  Mongols — ^Vision  of  a Tatar  Christian 
empire — ^Mark  of  Pekin — Patriarch  of  Babylon — Latin 

ix 


X Contents 

PAOE 

jealousy — Muslim  ferocity — Chinese  hostility — Devastation 
by  Timur  . . . . . . .40 

Four  ancient  religions  unconquered — Not  taken  into  account  by 
missionaries — ^No  organisation  or  method — No  strategy — 
Syriac  Christianity  not  adaptable  . . . .60 


II.  SUCCESS  IN  EUROPE 

Contrast  with  Asia — The  story  of  Christianity  in  Europe  familiar 
— Only  mission  frontier  work — The  Anatolian  Peninsula — 
Success  by  1500  a.d.  . . . . . .57 

1.  The  Greek  World 

Westwards  to  Lyons — Hellenistic  Jews — The  Septuagint — 
Jewish  adherents  the  nucleus — Capitals  occupied — Ephesus 
the  metropolis — Attack  on  Greek  gods — Christian  frontiers- 
men— City  churches — Provincial  synods — Churches  and 
missionaries — Celsus  and  Porph3rry — Decius — Conquest  of  the 
Greeks — The  evils  resulting  Lower  morality,  Philosophy, 
Polytheism,  Idolatry,  Sacramentahsm  and  Sacerdotalism 
— Needless  accretions  . . . . . .59 

2.  The  Roman  World 

Consolidation  in  Rome — Slow  progress  outside — The  opposition 
of  Mithraism — A military  cult — Manichseism  opposing — 
Another  Persian  religion — Uniformity  exacted — Christian 
customs  codified — A stereotyped  pattern  for  missionaries  . 70 

3.  The  Uncivilised  Tribes 

Keltic  gods — Martin  of  Tours — Britons  in  Ireland — Monks  becoming 
missionaries — Ninian  in  Ireland  and  at  Penrith — Concilia- 
tion of  Druids — Learning  utilised — Kentigem  on  the  Dee 
and  the  Gyde — Columba  on  Iona — The  northern  isles — 
Columban  up  the  Rhine — Saint  Gall — Heligoland — Gregory 
and  Austin — Aidan  at  Lindisfame — The  Abbess  Hilda  at 
Whitby — Gregory’s  statesmanship — ^Wulf  and  the  Gothic 
Bible — Theodore  and  Boniface  organising  missions — The 
German  epic  of  Christ — Conversions  perforce — Norse  opposi- 
tion— Gauntlet  or  Gospel — Iceland — The  Slavonic  Bible  and 
Liturgy — Muscovites  baptized  in  large  numbers — Baltic  shores 
reduced — An  Auto-da-fe  . . . . .76 

The  Empire  : — Elements  rejected ; Penalty  paid  later ; A 
warning  to  present-day  missionaries  ; Monks  and  versions — 
Barbarians  : — Mission  finance  ; Well  - manned  stations  ; 
Native  workers ; Missionary  strategists ; Little  harmful 
assimUation  ; Slow  progress,  but  sure  and  enduring  . . 99 


Contents 


XI 


PAGE 

III.  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  AFRICA 

The  problem  of  Islam — Two  geographical  facts — ^Influence  of 

European  Christian  Powers  .....  109 

1.  Winning  the  Nokth  Coast 

Native  Copts — Monasticism  in  Egypt — The  Native  Church — 
Kabyles,  Tyrians,  and  Latins  at  Carthage — The  Latins  won 
— Missions  languish  and  Paganism  revives  . . .Ill 

2.  Progress  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia 

Aden  and  Mecca — Arabian  heathenism — Poetic  contests — Jewish- 
Christian  Immigrants — The  south  occupied — Abyssinia  won 
— Ethiopic  version  of  the  Scriptures — ^War  with  Mecca — 
Idolatry  there — Muhammad — Religious  wars — The  Qur’ftn  . 115 

3.  Extinction  oe  Christianity  in  the  North 

Defection  of  the  Copts — Egypt  the  Muslim  stronghold — Nubia 
starved  out — Abyssinia  stagnant — Vandals  and  Berbers  pass 
over — Strangulation  of  Carthaginian  Christianity  . . 121 

4.  The  Rival  Missions  to  the  Blacks 

Isolated  from  the  north — Sudanese  and  Bantu — Muslim  enter- 
prise— Negro  bishops — Slave  trade  as  a form  of  missions — 
Neglect  till  1800  a. d. — Scramble  for  Africa — Higher  criticism 
of  the  Qur’an  : — Heathen,  Jewish,  Semi-Christian,  Persian 
elements — Islam’s  offers  : — The  Muslim  God  ; Ritualism  ; 

Law  ; Morality  ; Social  system  ; Rabbis — ^Muslim  mission 
methods  : — Force  obsolete  ; Education  ; Professional  mission- 
aries ; Traders ; Sanusl  brotherhood ; Cairo  University — 
Equality  ? — Prospects  of  Islam — Political  attitude  of  Euro- 
pean Powers  .......  128 

IV.  EXPANSION  IN  AMERICA 

European  Christianity  influencing  new  races — Freedom  to  wor- 
ship God — Modification  in  new  surroundings  . . . 153 

1.  Missions  to  Natives 

Paraguay  and  the  Jesuits — The  Reductions — ^Tutelage — Protestant 
apathy — North  America — Eskimos — Brazilians — West  Indian 
negroes — Mexico  and  Peru — “Baptized  Heathenism” — 
Condemned  by  the  Pope — ^Missions  in  papal  fields — A neglected 
continent — A native  ministry  . . . . .155 

2.  European  Cheisttanity  Developing  in  New  Surroundings. 

Influence  of  Environment — Changes  ehminate  the  accidental — 
Illustration  from  Monasticism — Sunday  schools — Endeavour 
societies — Organisation — Doctrine  ....  176 

Change  to  be  governed  by  the  Holy  Spirit — Romanism  in  North 
America — Romanism  at  home — Europe  a needy  field — 
America  the  experimental  station  ....  183 


Contents 


PAGE 


xii 


V.  REPLANTING  IN  ASIA 

No  defeat  accepted  as  final — Other  forms  of  Christianity 

brought  .......  191 

1.  The  Jesuits  in  India,  China,  Japan 

Cathay  not  recognised — Jesuits  a mission  body — Xavier  pioneering 

— Adaptation — Japan  expels  the  Jesuit  missionaries — Chinese 
compromises — Malabar  rites — Modem  hkeness  to  Paganism 
— Propaganda — Scientific  study  ....  192 

2.  New  Bases  Acquired  off  the  Coast 

Work  in  the  Pacific — Related  to  Asia — Oceania — Philippines  long 
isolated — Portuguese  and  Dutch — First  Protestant  mission 
versions — Formosa  and  Ceylon — Advantage  of  government 
patronage  ? — Danes  at  Tranquebar — Caste — ^Aborigines  of 
New  Zealand  and  Australia — New  homes  of  whites  . . 199 

3.  The  New  Forces  in  India 

Centre  of  gravity  on  the  Ganges — Serampur  versions — Planning 
expeditions — Buddhists  hard  to  approach — Hindus  numerous 
— ^IndividuaUsm  exceptional — ^Value  of  poetry — Sacerdotalism 
— Alternative  attitudes  to  the  past — Muslim  pride — Argue 
from  Qur’an — Ten  millions  accessible — Attracted  by  the 
Wheel,  the  Trident,  the  Crescent  and  the  Cross — These  out- 
castes  the  pressing  problem — Pohtical  situation  favourable  . 207 

4.  The  Outlook  in  China 

A fifth  attempt — Education  changing — Patriotism  suspicious — 

Local  religions  unimportant — Kaleidoscopic  situation — Per- 
sonal dealing — Paid  native  agents — Opium  . . . 215 

5.  The  Value  of  Japan 

Even  Russia  works  ! — America’s  duty — Patriotism  and  Ancestor- 
worship — Opportunism  like  Constantine’s — Buddhist  ambition 
— Secular  schools — A native  Church — Best  base  . . 219 

6.  The  Cr.adle  of  Christendom 

Cowed  by  the  Muslim — Islam  faltering — Perishing  by  the  sword  ? — 
Responsive  to  preaching — A stationary  system — A benumbed 
Church — Preaching  illegal — The  field  for  laymen  and  women : — 
Industrial,  medical,  literary,  educational,  harem  work — 
America’s  opportunity — Catholic  weakness — Ishmael  and 
Isaac  ........  223 

Seventeen  Centuries  of  Missions  ....  233 

Bibliography  .......  236 


ERRATA:  On  pages  29,  32,  38,  57,  69,  91,  95, /br 
“Arian”  read  “Aryan.” 

On  page  245,  column  2,  line  18,  for 
“forms”  read  “focus.” 


:■?  V":'  - . 


Introduction 


CHEISTIANITY  is  a Missionary  religion.  This  is  no 
accident,  nor  an  afterthought  of  man,  but  the 
eternal  purpose  of  the  all-wise  God.  For  ages  the 
mystery  of  salvation  had  been  hidden;  but  the  Father 
purposed  that  His  manifold  wisdom  should  be  made 
known  through  the  Church  as  soon  as  the  Son  of  Man 
had  been  lifted  up.  Our  Lord,  on  the  last  evening  of  His 
earthly  ministry,  gladly  and  solemnly  reflected  that  He  had 
accomplished  the  work  given  Him  to  do.  His  request 
now  was,  flrst  for  the  men  who  had  been  given  Him  out 
of  the  world,  that  they  should  be  kept  from  the  evil  one ; 
and  then  that  all  who  should  believe  on  Him  through 
their  word  might  be  one.  He  had  spent  much  of  His 
energy  in  training  a band  of  missionaries.  After  that 
death  on  the  Cross,  which  crowned  His  life.  He  gave  His 
parting  injunction  to  these  followers  that  they  should 
evangelise  the  world,  enlist  other  followers,  and  train 
them  in  turn  to  Christian  service.  Thus  at  the  outset, 
the  scope  of  our  duty  was  plainly  and  emphatically 
announced. 

This  Missionary  programme,  viewed  on  its  human  side, 

xiii 


XIV 


Introduction 


was  original.  Most  religious  leaders  had  confined  them- 
selves to  their  own  peoples.  Even  among  the  Jews,  it 
was  rarely  that  the  very  greatest  of  them  thought  of  their 
faith  as  meant  for  all  nations ; and  though  some  ardent 
souls  would  compass  sea  and  land  to  make  one  proselyte, 
yet  their  success  was  small  in  their  own  eyes,  and  it  was 
branded  by  our  Lord  as  in  reality  a moral  failure.  For 
Him  it  was  reserved  to  teach  new  truths,  to  make 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  and  to  ensure  that 
His  work  should  continue  and  develop,  by  founding  a 
Society  whose  leading  purpose  was  to  spread  the  know- 
ledge of  what  He  had  wrought,  not  slackening  endeavour 
till  all  nations  had  been  enlightened. 

This  magnificent  charge  has  always  been  heeded  by  a 
faithful  few ; with  varying  energy,  with  varying  skill, 
soldiers  of  the  Cross  have  always  been  found  on  the 
frontiers  of  Christendom.  During  the  last  century,  the 
primary  duty  of  the  Church  has  attracted  increasing 
attention,  and  there  is  now  no  quarter  of  the  world  pur- 
posely or  accidentally  excluded  from  the  sphere  of  Christian 
effort.  Lest  strength  be  misdirected,  it  is  well  for  those 
who  are  not  in  the  din  of  conflict  at  the  front,  to  take  a 
survey  of  the  whole  field,  that  they  may  try  and  compre- 
hend the  principles  of  the  holy  warfare.  The  experience 
of  nineteen  centuries  deserves  to  be  scanned,  for  the 
victories  and  defeats  of  missionaries  happened  by  way  of 
example;  and  they  may  serve  for  our  admonition,  that 
we  may  avoid  repeating  their  mistakes,  and  may  improve 
upon  their  successes. 

When  we  look  for  important  eras,  we  can  recognise 


Introduction 


XV 


three  centuries  crucial  for  the  spread  of  Christianity : the 
seventh,  the  thirteenth,  and  the  nineteenth.  The  first  of 
these  periods,  600  A.D.  to  700  a.d.,  marks  the  rise  and 
marvellous  success  of  Islam,  well  called  a counter- 
mission; it  broke  up  the  continuity  of  Christian  lands 
around  the  Mediterranean,  and  permanently  separated  the 
two  mission  centres  of  Babylon  and  Kome.  The  second 
period,  1200  A.D.  to  1300  A.D.,  marks  the  revival  in  the 
Western  world  which  soon  won  the  rest  of  Europe, 
regained  Spain,  and  even  tried  to  Eomanise  the  Levant ; 
while  it  shows  the  culmination  of  Christianity  in  Asia, 
with  native  Churches  in  Syria,  Persia,  Turkestan,  ISTorth 
China,  South  India,  and  even  in  the  islands  of  Socotra, 
Ceylon,  and  Java.  The  third  period,  1800  A.D.  to  1900 
A.D.,  marks  the  deliberate  attempt  to  evangelise  the  whole 
world,  recognised  at  last  as  the  paramount  task  of  the 
Church. 

During  these  ages,  the  seed  of  the  Gospel  has  been 
cast  into  very  different  soils,  and  each  yielded  a different 
result.  Asia  contained  three  great  empires  with  vener- 
able religions ; China  indeed  lay  secluded  behind  vast 
deserts,  and  was  not  in  touch  with  Jewry ; but  India  was 
known,  and  could  be  reached  by  land  or  sea;  while 
Parthia,  which  only  forty  years  before  our  Lord’s  birth 
had  ruled  over  Jerusalem,  still  governed  millions  of  Jews 
in  the  splendid  realm  across  the  Euphrates.  Europe  was 
the  headquarters  of  the  great  Eoman  Empire  spreading 
around  the  Mediterranean,  where  in  the  East  the  civilisa- 
tion was  of  a Greek  cast ; while  in  the  West  the  Latin 
influence  predominated.  Africa  in  the  North  shared  the 


XVI 


Introduction 


same  culture ; but  beyond  the  Sudan  and  the  Sahara  lay 
other  races  of  more  primitive  type,  yet  equally  needy  of 
salvation.  Across  the  Western  ocean  were  other  lands ; 
and  when  Christianity  was  dying  in  its  native  continent 
a new  world  was  opened  to  it  in  America.  And  then 
westward,  the  course  of  Empire  still  holding  its  way,  the 
circuit  of  the  globe  leads  to  Asia  anew — yes,  to  a new 
Asia,  awaking  from  lethargy,  and  uncertain  what  path  to 
follow,  thus  needing  most  urgently  the  authoritative, 
“ Come  and  see ! ” 

Thus  to  follow  the  march  of  the  centuries,  thus  to  sweep 
through  the  continents  of  the  world,  is  to  get  some 
glimpse  of  how  all  times  and  all  lands  are  in  the  almighty 
hand  of  our  Father.  Through  Christ  He  created  the  ages ; 
in  Christ  He  claimed  the  world.  The  outworking  of 
His  plan  of  redemption  we  do  not  fully  understand; 
but  enough  of  that  mystery  which  had  been  kept  in 
silence  through  times  eternal  has  now  been  revealed,  to 
lead  us  in  adoration  to  the  only  wise  God,  through  Jesus 
Christ,  to  whom  be  the  glory  for  ever ! 


MISSIOD^^ARY  ACHIEYEMERT 


FAILURE  IN  ASIA 


Our  yet  unfinished  story 
Is  tending  all  to  this ; 

To  God  the  greatest  glory. 

To  us  the  greatest  bhss. 

From  broken  alabaster 

Was  deathless  fragrance  shed. 

The  spikenard  flowed  the  faster 
Upon  the  Saviour’s  head. 

The  discord  that  involveth 
Some  startling  change  of  key. 

The  Master’s  hand  resolveth 
In  richest  harmony. 


Uaveegal. 


I 


Failure  in  Asia 

rpHE  Holy  Land  is  essentially  a fragment  of  Asia, 
J-  althougli  in  the  providence  of  God  the  European 
power  of  Kome  was  dominant  there  during  the 
earthly  life  of  our  Lord.  If  now  and  again  the  dwellers 
by  the  NUe  claimed  a footing,  yet  it  harboured  chiefly 
the  Semites  of  Arabia,  and  was  ruled  generally  from  the 
Euphrates  or  Tigris.  There  is  reason,  then,  in  examining 
first  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  its  native  continent. 
The  study  may  be  the  more  interesting  as  its  story  has 
never  been  written  in  our  tongue,  and  the  facts  have  had 
to  be  gleaned  with  patience  from  aU  manner  of  sources. 

The  field  of  Asia  may,  however,  be  narrowed  by  setting 
aside  three  great  areas  : first,  that  Anatolian  land  called 
by  us  Asia  Minor,  which  is  better  treated  in  connection 
with  Europe,  whose  civihsation  it  largely  shares,  and 
whence  it  has  been  ruled  for  centuries ; second,  we 
may  postpone  the  study  of  Arabia,  which  from  a religious 
point  of  view  is  associated  rather  with  Africa ; third, 
we  may  ignore  Siberia  and  the  North  as  a tract  of  land 
then  utterly  unimportant. 

Again,  we  may  draw  the  line  at  the  period  when  Asiatic 
Christianity  had  spent  its  force.  Thrice  has  Europe 

3 


4 


Failure  in  Asia 


tried  to  transplant  her  religion  : once  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
by  force,  in  the  Crusades  ; once  at  the  dawn  of  the  modern 
world  of  commerce,  when  the  friars  and  the  Jesuits  were 
the  heroes ; once  again  when  Protestantism  essayed 
the  task  anew,  with  the  weapons  of  thought.  But  these 
attempts  represent  the  Western  world  seeking  to  domin- 
ate or  to  rejuvenate  the  East ; and  if  help  is  to  be  gained 
for  modern  ambassadors,  there  must  first  be  study  of  what 
Asiatics  have  done  for  Asiatics,  how  they  succeeded  and 
why  they  failed.  For  we  know  that  by  1400  a.d.  they 
had  failed,  conspicuously  and  finally,  and  that  Christianity 
in  Asia  was  then  absolutely  neghgible. 

Our  religion  in  its  Eastward  progress  met  four  great 
nations — the  Jews,  the  Parthians  or  Persians,  the  Indians, 
the  Chinese.  Let  us  note  how  it  fared  with  each  of  these. 


1.  The  Jews 

We  to  our  past  adhere, 

The  onward  path  we  fear, 

We  keep  the  faith  for  which  our  fathers  bled ; 

We  wiU  not  yield  one  jot, 

Let  zeal  be  fierce  and  hot — 

Smite  them  and  spare  them  not. 

Till  they  their  faith  deny,  or  He  among  the  dead. 

Plumptkb. 

Poore  nation,  whose  sweet  sap  and  juice 
Our  cyens  have  purloined,  and  left  you  dry : 

Whose  streams  we  got  by  the  Apostles’  sluce. 

And  use  in  baptisme,  while  ye  pine  and  die : 

Who  by  not  keeping  once,  became  a debter ; 

And  now  by  keeping,  lose  the  letter ! 


Hbbb£BT. 


Christianity  and  the  Jews 


5 


Since  whole  nations  have  been  swayed  by  their  rehgious 
reformers,  such  as  Zoroaster,  Confucius,  Gotama,  Mu- 
hammad, we  may  be  inclined  to  wonder  why  the  Jews 
remained  almost  unaffected  by  one  who  was  not  only 
the  Prophet  long  expected,  but  also  far  more  than  a 
prophet,  being  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  Living  God. 
Any  Israehte  who  was  told  in  the  year  25  a.d.  that  within 
the  current  high-priesthood  the  Messiah  would  come  and 
accomphsh  His  work,  must  have  confidently  expected  a 
national  evolution  or  a rehgious  revolution.  He  would 
have  been  sure  that  there  could  be  no  failure  in  what 
God  had  prepared  His  people  for  during  the  ages.  But 
once  again  Isaiah’s  doctrine  of  the  Remnant  was  to  be 
exemplified ; once  again  was  it  to  be  seen  that  the  Jews 
of  Palestine  were  on  the  whole  “ bad  figs,”  as  in  the  days 
of  Jeremiah,  and  that  the  best  were  to  be  sought  away 
from  the  centre  of  contamination  at  Jerusalem.  If  Ezekiel 
beheld  the  glory  of  the  Lord  depart  from  the  Temple, 
so,  too,  the  disciples  heard  Jesus  declare  that  the  House 
was  left  desolate  ; and  they  beheld  Him  despised  and 
rejected  by  His  own  nation.  During  His  personal  ministry 
He  won  only  seventy  brethren  to  prepare  the  way  for 
Him  on  His  journey  to  the  Cross.  And  when  God  had 
set  His  seal  on  Christ’s  mission  by  the  resurrection, 
yet  there  were  only  five  hundred  in  Gahlee  who,  in 
that  hour  of  triumph,  were  enthusiastic  enough  to 
accept  His  gracious  invitation  and  behold  their  risen 
Lord. 

Then  came  the  Spirit,  and  the  proclamation  of  pardon 


6 


Failuee  in  Asia 


eveA  to  those  who  slew  their  Messiah.  Nor  was  this 
in  vain ; and  soon  there  were  thousands  at  Jerusalem, 
including  disciples  of  the  Pharisees  and  a great  company 
of  the  priests.  But  if  hopes  were  ever  entertained  of 
winning  the  leaders  and  bringing  the  whole  nation  to 
accept  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  they  must  soon  have  faded 
when  Stephen  challenged  the  Temple  and  the  customs 
delivered  by  Moses ; when  Paul  entered  into  the  breach 
made  by  Philip  and  Peter,  introducing  Gentiles ; and 
when  the  Jewish  Nazarenes  agreed,  however  reluctantly, 
to  recognise  these  on  almost  equal  terms.  Paul  himself 
might  be  plotted  against,  or  thrown  into  prison,  but  his 
work  continued  ; and  whatever  those  of  the  new  Way 
might  decide,  the  orthodox  Jews  held  distinctly  that  it 
was  an  unlawful  thing  for  them  to  keep  company  with 
one  of  another  nation.  Henceforth  these  followers  of  the 
Crucified  were  a sect,  and  their  doctrine  was  a heresy. 
So  far  had  the  god  of  this  world  blinded  the  minds  of  the 
unbelieving. 

The  suppression  of  the  great  rebellion  in  70  a.t>.,  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  the  extinction  of  the  San- 
hedrin with  its  priestly  rulers,  might  seem  to  open  the 
way  anew  for  the  nation  to  realise  its  true  destiny.  But 
instantly  the  Pharisees  stepped  into  the  vacant  leader- 
ship, and  proceeded  to  close  up  the  ranks  by  detecting 
and  expelling  all  suspected  of  sympathy  with  Jesus. 
They  forbade  any  manner  of  observance  of  the  first  day  of 
the  week  ; they  framed  a special  “ Benediction  ” — which 
reads  rather  like  a malediction — against  the  “ Minim,” 


The  “Clementines” 


7 


as  they  began  to  style  their  erring  brethren,  and  caused 
it  to  be  pronounced  every  Sabbath  ; they  discouraged 
the  reading  of  all  books  tainted  with  the  heresy,  even 
forbidding  the  use  of  a copy  of  the  Law  previously  owned 
by  a heretic.  And  when  there  came  the  desperate  rising 
against  Hadrian,  they  did  their  best  to  massacre  all  the 
Jewish  Christians.  This  made  it  hopeless  to  think  of 
winning  over  the  whole  of  the  once  Chosen  People ; and 
we  may  confine  attention  to  the  minority  which  was 
trying  on  the  one  hand  to  keep  the  Law  of  Moses,  and 
on  the  other  to  accept  the  grace  and  truth  which  came 
through  Jesus  the  Messiah. 

At  the  middle  of  the  second  century  they  still  felt 
themselves  the  main  Christian  stock ; and  we  hear  of  a 
Jewish  Christian  who  recollected  the  precedent  of  Barnabas, 
once  sent  down  to  Antioch  to  inspect  the  doings  there 
and  assure  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  that  all  was  well 
with  the  daughter  Church.  In  this  spirit  Hegesippus 
went  on  a tour  of  the  Christian  Churches  ; he  was  satisfied 
with  what  he  found  at  Corinth  and  at  Eome,  doctrine 
that  accorded  with  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the 
Lord.  He  shows  that  in  his  circle  a glorification  of  James 
had  made  way,  as  if  he  were  a sort  of  high  priest.  But 
within  a dozen  years  his  party  was  in  a minority,  and 
soon  ceased  to  obtain  any  recognition  of  pre-eminence. 
Thereupon  appeal  was  made  to  the  power  of  the  pen, 
and  a novel  was  published  with  Clement  of  Rome  as 
its  hero,  representing  him  as  converted  by  Peter  in 
Palestine,  and  as  looking  to  James  at  Jerusalem  to 


8 


Failure  in  Asia 


confirm  Mm  as  Peter’s  successor.  It  is  instructive 
to  see  how  the  Jewish  Christians  tenaciously  asserted 
their  superiority,  and  how  they  endeavoured  to  sub- 
ject all  the  Christian  world  to  an  hereditary  dynasty 
of  the  family  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  The  claim  was 
ignored,  except  in  so  far  as  it  kindled  aspirations  in 
the  Roman  Church,  destined  to  come  to  fruition  at  no 
distant  date. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Nazarenes  were  cast  out  by  the 
old-fashioned  Jews,  who  give  us  glimpses  of  their  separate 
synagogues,  where  they  met  probably  on  the  first,  fourth, 
and  sixth  days,  their  readers  clad  in  wMte  and  bare- 
footed, with  phylacteries  on  the  forehead  and  the  palms 
of  the  hands.  Thus  isolated  on  either  hand,  like  the 
Anglican  communion  to-day,  they  worked  out  their 
own  theology ; two  leading  schools  appear,  one  purely 
Jewish-Christian,  the  second  influenced  by  other  Asiatic 
elements.  The  germs  of  the  latter  may  be  traced  in  the 
counterblasts  of  Paul  and  John  against  the  heresies  of 
Asia  Minor,  or  in  the  teachings  of  Cerinthus  as  reported 
by  Hippolytus ; but  this  does  not  claim  attention  yet, 
for  its  influence  was  greatest  in  Europe.  The  Palestinian 
type  is  shown  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  Clemen- 
tine Homilies,  which  reveal  the  way  the  old  Jews 
regarded  them,  and  the  way  they  regarded  the  Gentile 
Christians. 

As  against  the  orthodox  Jews,  they  upheld  the  reality 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord,  and  insisted  that  this  was 
the  ordy  valid  proof  of  a general  resurrection,  demand- 


A Combination  of  Peculiarities 


9 


ing  wliere  the  Old  Testament  promised  any  such  thing, 
or  even  foreshadowed  it.  They  had  a high  doctrine  of 
the  Person  of  Christ,  and  were  charged  with  asserting 
the  duality  of  the  Godhead.  To  His  teachings  they  paid 
respect,  and  on  His  authority  they  criticised  the  Law  of 
Moses,  declaring  that  only  the  Ten  Words  were  still  binding, 
and  so  becoming  involved  in  frequent  disputes  on  rituahsm. 

But  as  against  Gentile  Christians,  they  were  sacerdotal 
and  legal,  and  had  a strong  sense  of  the  value  of  exter- 
nal continuity.  Especially  they  regarded  Christianity 
as  continuous  with  Judaism,  and  claimed  a secret  tradi- 
tion to  prove  this.  Thus  they  inevitably  continued  in 
conflict  with  Paul,  as  their  fathers  had  been,  and  the 
Homihes  contain  a virulent  attack  on  him  and  his  teach- 
ing. And  in  their  view  of  Jesus  they  laid  the  emphasis, 
not  with  Paul,  on  the  Cross  ; nor  even  with  Peter,  on  the 
Messiahship : but  on  the  teaching  and  prophecy  of  Jesus 
Himself. 

This  combination  of  peculiarities  condemned  them  to 
isolation  and  stagnation,  and  as  the  Church  grew  in  other 
directions  they  became  less  and  less  important.  In 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  tendency  to  uniformity 
bore  hardly  on  them  ; and  the  “ Cathohc  Church,”  having 
taken  over  to  itself  their  chosen  dogmas  of  continuity, 
sacerdotalism,  and  legalism,  at  length  excluded  them  alto- 
gether as  heretics. 

If  any  of  them  resented  this,  they  had  a magnificent 
revenge  ; for  all  the  knowledge  that'  Muhammad  had  of 
Jesus  seems  to  have  reached  him  through  some  Jewish 


10 


Failure  in  Asia 


Cliristians,  and  the  Qur’an  reflects  some  of  their  ideas. 
Had  there  been  more  consideration  on  both  sides,  more 
interchange  of  thought  between  Jewish  and  Gentile 
Christians,  Muhammad  might  have  had  a richer  and 
deeper  conception  of  Jesus ; his  watchword  might  have 
varied,  and  he  might  have  done  for  western  Asia  and 
Africa  what  Olopim  of  Persia  was  doing  for  eastern  Asia, 
what  Aidan  and  Chad  were  doing  for  England,  what 
Columban  was  doing  for  Central  Europe. 

But  as  a matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  Jews  rejected 
Jesus ; and  those  who  did  accept  Him  fulfilled  His  fore- 
bodings, and  would  only  take  a patch  of  the  new  cloth 
to  put  upon  their  old  garments  ; by  thus  qualifying  their 
acceptance  of  Him  they  remained  feeble  and  stationary, 
and  are  now  extinct.  Looked  at  outwardly,  Christianity 
failed  twice  in  the  very  place  where  it  ought  to  have  suc- 
ceeded wonderfully.  Yet,  is  not  such  an  idea  due  to  the 
Jewish  error  of  outward  continuity,  naturahsed  among 
Christians  as  Apostohc  Succession  ? Look  not  at  peoples, 
but  at  ideas.  What  did  the  Jews  bequeath  to  Christian 
thought  ? We  can  trace  three  distinct  legacies — from 
our  Lord,  from  the  Apostles,  from  later  generations. 

First,  Jesus  Himself  disengaged  three  great  truths 
from  the  mass  of  Jewish  beliefs,  and  stamped  them  with 
His  authority.  He  endorsed  the  current  faith  in  God  as 
a hving  God,  actively  concerned  with  all  that  passed  : 
“ My  Father  worketh  hitherto.  Thy  Father  seeth  in 
secret,  and  shall  recompense  thee.”  Then  He  authenti- 
cated the  splendid  hope  for  the  future,  both  of  the 


“ Professional  Missionaries  ” 


11 


world  and  of  the  individual ; He  transformed  it  by  that 
personal  touch  for  which  our  hearts  crave,  immeasurably 
enriching  it  by  the  assurance  that  eternal  life  was  to 
know  the  Father  and  Himself ; and  to  what  had  been 
but  a pious  hope  without  any  solid  foundation,  He  now 
imparted  an  imperishable  certitude  by  His  own  reappear- 
ance from  the  dead,  an  earnest  of  what  might  happen 
to  all.  Further,  He  not  only  approved  the  lofty  ethics  of 
the  Jews,  but  He  frankly  criticised  their  written  Law  as 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  their  time,  and  selected  two 
sentences  into  which  He  breathed  new  meaning,  presently 
restating  them  in  what  He  called  plainly  a New  Com- 
mandment, enjoining  Mutual  Love.  No  religion  had  ever 
lifted  such  a standard  before  its  devotees.  And  once 
more,  whereas  Ezekiel  had  claimed  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  individual,  and  John  the  Baptist  had 
driven  this  home  to  the  individual  sinner  among  the 
Jews,  Jesus  not  only  taught  that  every  man  stands  or 
falls  by  himself,  but  added  that  each  is  saved  by  the 
personal  interest  of  God,  and  through  a personal  devo- 
tion to  Himself : “ He  that  belie veth  on  Me  hath 
eternal  life.” 

The  earliest  Jewish  Christians,  living  before  the  schism, 
brought  rare  contributions  to  Christian  hfe  and  thought. 
To  begin  with,  they  were  accustomed  to  a steady  pro- 
paganda ; and  to  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  very  con- 
ception of  'professional  missionaries,  of  men  whose  efforts 
to  spread  Christianity  were  the  chief  thing  in  life,  and 
not  mere  by-products.  There  was  no  Apostolic  Succession 


12 


Failure  in  Asia 


of  missionaries  kept  up  after  tlie  Jewish  element  was 
extruded  from  the  Church,  and  its  influence  faded  out. 
True  that  here  and  there  we  find  a Gregory  Illuminator, 
a Ramon  LuU,  a Francis  Xavier ; but  these  are  rare  ex- 
ceptions. Had  the  Jewish  custom  been  perpetuated, 
the  command  of  Jesus  might  have  been  speedily  obeyed, 
and  all  the  nations  might  have  heard  the  Good  News  a 
millennium  ago. 

Unfortunately,  one  item  of  their  programme  did  abide, 
the  thought  that  every  missionary  was  to  model  his 
proceedings  on  the  pattern  of  Jesus,  the  Forerunner 
and  the  Example,  and  the  directions  given  by  Him  on 
one  specific  occasion  to  the  twelve  disciples  were  taken 
as  universally  apphcable.  Here,  surely,  are  two  fallacies  : 
Jesus  was  not  above  all  things  the  model  missionary, 
but  the  Redeemer  ; and  His  conduct  must  often  have  been 
determined  by  this  consideration,  so  that  it  is  a mistake 
to  appeal  to  it  as  necessarily  in  every  detail  to  be  imitated. 
And  the  directions  given  to  the  twelve  in  Matthew  x. 
bear  one  obvious  mark  of  being  temporary,  in  that  they 
limit  that  mission  to  Jews : the  details  of  conduct 
ordered  on  that  single  tour  are  of  no  more  permanent 
binding  force  than  the  restriction,  “ Go  not  into  any  way 
of  the  Gentiles  ” — which  has  long  since  been  removed  by 
the  express  order,  “ Make  disciples  of  aU  the  nations.” 
Yet  the  blunder  persisted,  and  wrought  serious  efiects  : 
despite  the  plain  words  of  Paul,  despite  the  fact  that  he 
was  a widower,  settling  for  years  at  a time  in  one  town 
to  establish  a cause,  and  supporting  himself ; yet  the 


The  Old  and  New  Testaments 


13 


popular  type  of  missionary  was  the  itinerant  bachelor 
subsisting  on  chance  charity.  The  evangehsts  and 
wandering  prophets  of  the  second  century  were  gradually 
discredited  and  supplanted  by  stationary  local  officials, 
and  organised  missionary  efiort  correspondingly  ceased. 

A more  useful  legacy  from  the  Jews  was  the  Old 
Testament,  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Jews ; to  which,  as 
Hegesippus  shows,  the  Jewish  Christians  soon  added  the 
Lord’s  words  as  equally  authoritative,  and  to  which 
Marcion  speedily  opposed  the  writings  of  Paul : so  that 
gradually  a New  Testament  emerged,  completing  a collec- 
tion of  standard  rehgious  literature.  Familiar  as  this 
conception  was  in  China,  India,  and  Persia,  yet  in  the 
Roman  Empire  it  was  a novelty,  and  the  Jews  must  be 
credited  with  its  introduction.  Again  they  carried  over  a 
new  style  of  worship,  that  of  the  synagogue,  with  its  public 
reading,  its  responsive  prayers,  its  chants,  its  preaching ; 
but  without  pompous  procession  or  idol  or  priest  or  sacri- 
fice. And  once  more,  if  we  think  of  doctrine,  the  concep- 
tion of  Jesus  as  the  God-sent  Leader,  to  whom  aU  the 
ages  led  up,  and  in  whom  all  history  finds  its  inter- 
pretation, this  is  their  grandest  legacy.  Expressed  with 
awe-stricken  adoration  by  Paul,  missionary  and  theologian 
ahke,  it  strikes  the  keynote  for  those  who  would  follow 
the  philosophy  of  history.  This  glorious  truth,  that  all 
things  are  summed  up  in  Christ,  sets  us  at  the  right 
point  for  viewing  the  past  to  elicit  its  meaning,  and  for 
advancing  into  the  future  cheerfully  trusting  the  Captain 
of  our  salvation. 


14 


Failure  in  Asia 


At  a later  period  Grentile  Ckristians  appropriated  yet 
other  elements  from  the  Jews,  the  value  of  which  is 
extremely  different.  There  was  an  adoption  of  Jewish 
apocalypses,  and  a tendency  to  forge  writings,  which 
could  perhaps  be  checked  by  officials  and  kept  out  of 
pubhc  worship,  but  none  the  less  were  studied  at  home. 
There  was  an  officialism  which  turned  the  business  com- 
mittee into  a paid  stafi  of  priests,  turned  the  teacher  into 
a rabbi  with  a love  for  tradition,  and  promoted  a life 
tenure  of  office  with  a corresponding  degradation  of  the 
unofficial  Christian,  like  “ this  people  which  knoweth  not 
the  Law,  accursed.”  Such  an  inheritance  as  this  was  no 
part  of  the  primitive  deposit,  and  can  only  be  regarded 
at  best  as  a temporary  husk,  which  must  perish  when  the 
grain  of  wheat  is  sown  afresh. 


2.  Syrians,  Armenians,  and  Persians 

Clad  in  the  robe  I betook  me 
Up  to  the  gate  of  the  palace, 

Bowing  my  head  to  the  sign  of  the  glorious 
Sign  of  the  Father  that  sent  it ; 

I had  performed  His  behest. 

And  He  had  fulfilled  what  He  promised ; 

So  in  the  satraps’  court 

I joined  the  throng  of  the  chieftains ; 

■ He  with  favour  received  me, 

' And  near  Him  I dwell  in  the  Kingdom. 

Syrian  Hymn  of  the  Soul. 

To  the  east  and  north-east  of  Palestine  lay  the  basins 
of  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Araxes,  all  containing  Jews, 


A Notable  Convert 


15 


and  presenting  obvious  fields  for  Cbristian  missionaries. 
No  difficulty  would  arise  as  to  language,  for  tbe  Aramaic 
of  Palestine  difiered  no  more  from  tbe  Aramaic  of  tbe 
Partbian  kingdom  than  Lowland  Scots  from  standard 
Engbsb.  Indeed,  both  Matthew  and  Josepbus  wrote 
originally  in  Aramaic  for  tbis  very  population,  and  tbeir 
works  were  read  as  far  as  tbe  Indus.  And  for  centuries 
afterward  tbe  Jews  used  it  for  tbeir  Talmud  and  tbeir 
Targums.  ' 

Now,  tbe  Jewish  rebeUion  of  135  a.d.  was  a great 
dividing  bne  for  Jewish  Christians  as  for  Jews  proper. 
When  it  was  suppressed,  a Christian  missionary,  called 
Addai,  came  to  tbe  frontier  town  of  Edessa,  where  be 
foimd  Jews  with  translations  of  tbeir  Law  and  Prophets, 
and  of  Ben  Sira’s  Wisdom.  Many  of  these  people  be  con- 
verted, and  built  a church  for  tbeir  use.  Though  be  died 
in  peace,  bis  successor  Aggai  was  less  fortunate ; opposi- 
tion developed  and  be  was  martyred.  Soon  a native  called 
Tatian  returned  from  Borne  bringing  tbe  Four  Gospels 
which  be  dovetailed  into  a composite  Life  of  Jesus,  trans- 
lating and  publishing  it  in  tbe  vernacular.  Tbe  breach 
between  Jews  and  Christians  is  shown  in  tbe  fact  that 
be  used  a different  alphabet ; and  gradually  tbe  dialect  be- 
came speciabsed  and  was  knovm  as  Syriac,  which  remained 
a bterary  language  for  Christians  down  to  1300  a.d.  Soon 
was  won  a notable  follower,  Bar-Daisan,  astrologer  and 
philosopher.  Tatian  bad  pecubarities  that  tbe  Greek 
world  wondered  at,  and  from  tbis  new  convert  Syriac 
Christianity  received  another  notable  impress.  He  specu- 


16 


Failure  in  Asia 


lated  on  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  on  the  factors  to 
determine  the  character  and  future  of  a man ; as  against 
Nature,  and  Fate,  he  emphasised  the  reahty  of  free  will. 
Certainly  he  was  excommunicated  as  too  bold  a theorist ; 
but  if  we  turn  to  the  standard  book  of  the  second  century, 
the  Doctrine  of  Addai,  we  discover  that  nothing  is  said 
about  parentage  or  children  or  education.  Indeed,  the 
asceticism  for  which  Tatian  was  blamed  developed  so 
fast  that  church  membership  at  Edessa  was  for  celibates 
only ! Married  people  might  indeed  attend  certain 
parts  of  worship,  but  could  not  even  be  baptized. 

Persecution  reduced  the  Church,  and  the  Greeks  of 
Antioch  intervened  to  rescue  it  from  foes  without  and 
faddists  within.  A new  Ime  of  bishops  began  about  200 
A.D.  with  Palut,  on  the  annexation  of  Edessa  to  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  the  break  of  continuity  was  marked 
by  the  river  destroying  the  church  building.  For  awhile 
the  energies  of  the  Church  were  directed  Westward ; 
Cappadocia  was  won  for  Christ,  and  the  XII.  Legion 
quartered  on  this  frontier  became  deeply  leavened.  When 
Decius  and  Diocletian  tried  to  stamp  out  Christianity, 
this  Legion  and  this  Church  yielded  many  martyrs. 

From  Edessa  the  Gospel  was  carried  Northward  to 
Armenia,  which  profited  first  by  the  presence  of  Bar- 
Daisan,  then  of  an  organiser,  Gregory  Illuminator.  So 
successful  were  the  missionaries  that  King  Tiridates  not 
only  gave  in  his  own  adhesion,  but  also  estabhshed  it  as 
the  State  rehgion,  the  first  such  instance  known.  Syriac 
and  Greek  schools  were  opened,  and  the  Scriptures  were 


The  Gospel  in  Armenia 


17 


taught ; soon  the  sons  of  heathen  priests  were  in  training 
to  become  native  bishops.  Had  we  the  time  to  spare, 
it  would  be  interesting  to  sketch  the  remarkable  form 
assumed  here  by  Christianity,  revealed  to  us  by  the 
Armenian  “ Key  of  Truth,”  before  the  Greek  spirit  affected 
the  national  Church  and  distracted  its  attention  to  other 
problems.  One  point  is  that  the  headship  of  the  Church 
descended  in  Gregory’s  family,  much  as  at  Jerusalem 
it  descended  in  the  family  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  And 
even  to  the  present  day  the  priesthood  remains  hereditary. 

Until  the  year  230  a.d.  the  Eastern  Kingdom,  on  whose 
borders  both  Syria  and  Armenia  lay,  was  governed  by  the 
Parthians ; but  then  the  Persians  brought  about  great 
changes,  both  pohtical  and  rehgious.  The  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  became  again  highways  of  travel,  and  the 
Christians  of  Edessa  came  into  touch  with  others  on  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  of  Baluchistan.  They 
seem  to  have  originated  from  the  labours  of  the  Apostle 
Thomas,  who  evangelised  those  parts  in  the  reign  of 
King  Gondophar,  reigning  near  Cabul,  and  who  was 
slain  on  the  coast  rather  west  of  Karachi.  The  com- 
munity he  founded  preserved  an  Aramaic  “ Gospel  accord- 
ing to  Matthew,”  which  was  taken  to  Alexandria  by  a 
missionary  professor,  a converted  Sicilian  Jew,  about 
180  A.D.  The  story  of  the  doings  of  Thomas  has  been 
grievously  embelHshed,  but  the  very  embelhshments 
show  us  the  ideal  that  obtained  in  the  district — virginity, 
poverty,  vegetarianism ; and  in  these  points  we  recognise 
the  local  ideal  of  holiness,  adopted  later  by  the  Brahmans, 
3 


18 


Failure  in  Asia 


though  as  foreign  to  the  primitive  Hindu  religion  as  to 
Christianity.  In  the  year  235  a.d.  a merchant  brought 
to  Edessa  what  he  supposed  were  the  bones  of  Thomas, 
which  were  deposited  in  the  old  church ; and  ever  since 
then  the  Christians  spreading  throughout  Persia  styled 
themselves  the  “ Church  of  Saint  Thomas.”  ^ 

The  political  changes  at  this  time  were  less  important 
than  the  revival  of  the  Persian  religion.  The  antique 
national  faith  had  been  recast  about  the  time  of  Ezekiel 
by  Zoroaster,  who  had  inspired  the  Medes  to  their  national 
revival  which  overthrew  Nineveh,  and  led  Cyrus  seventy 
years  later  to  permit  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Zoroastrians  now  condescended  to  copy  Christian  models  ; 
their  priests  were  organised  into  a hierarchy,  and  presently 
their  sacred  books  were  gathered  into  a canon. 


‘ The  subsequent  history  of  these  hones  is  curious.  In  394  Bishop 
Cyrus  removed  them  to  a grand  new  church  in  Edessa,  where  Sylvia 
of  Aquitaine  saw  them.  About  fifty  years  later  General  Anatolius 
presented  a silver  casket  in  which  they  were  placed,  and  hung  by  silver 
chains  from  the  roof.  When  the  separation  took  place  between  the 
Persian  Church  and  the  Greek,  the  latter  retained  the  relics.  In  1097 
the  Latins  conquered  the  place,  and  they  claim  that  they  took  the 
bones  to  Chios,  where  in  1127  they  rededicated  the  cathedral  to  Thomas, 
and  that  in  1258  another  removal  took  place  to  Ortona  on  the  east 
coast  of  Italy,  where  the  head  may  stiU  be  seen  mounted  in  silver.  But 
the  Greeks  declare  that  before  the  Latin  conquest  the  emperor,  Alexios 
Comnenos,  removed  the  head,  and  presented  it  about  1090  to  a new 
monastery  on  Patmos,  where  also  it  may  be  seen  mounted  in  silver, 
and  very  efficacious  in  its  influence  on  the  weather.  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  in  1293  Marco  Polo  found  in  Malabar,  on  the  coast  of  India, 
a church  to  the  memory  of  Thomas,  whence  in  1522  the  Portuguese 
removed  what  a Mushm  told  them  were  the  bones  of  the  Apostle  and  the 
lance  that  speared  him  ; these  are  to  be  seen  at  Goa.  A fourth  set  of 
bones  is  now  displayed  at  the  Malabar  church  in  the  suburbs  of  Madras. 


A Celibate  Church 


19 


When,  a century  later,  Christianity  was  adopted  by  the 
Greek  Empire  as  its  State  Keligion,  it  was  instantly  re- 
garded in  Persia  as  an  exotic  enemy,  and  an  organised 
campaign  against  it  was  set  on  foot.  This,  however, 
served  rather  for  the  furtherance  of  the  Gospel,  as  in  the 
days  of  Stephen ; for  the  fugitives  carried  a knowledge 
of  Christ  round  the  coast  to  South  Arabia,  where  we 
shall  meet  it  on  another  occasion,  and  across  the  ocean 
to  the  Maidive  Isles,  and  especially  to  the  south-west  of 
India  and  round  to  Madras. 

Yet  the  persecution  was  a political  blunder,  for  the 
Persian  Christians  were  not  in  very  close  touch  with  the 
Greek.  Not  only  was  the  language  difEerent,  but  the 
theology  also,  as  is  shown  by  the  writing  of  Afrahat,  the 
Persian  sage.  So  far  as  he  had  any  doctrine  of  the  Person 
of  Christ,  it  was  quite  untouched  by  Greek  thought, 
and  quite  innocent  of  the  speculations  of  Arius  and 
Athanasius,  but  represented  rather  the  old  type  noticed 
in  Armenia.  Really  with  him  Christianity  was  not  a 
creed,  but  a life,  and  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  conduct. 
Listeners  and  vague  adherents  were  welcomed,  but  they 
were  not  admitted  to  fellowship  unless  they  would  take 
vows  and  become  “ Sons  of  the  Covenant.”  This  cove- 
nant was  for  celibates,  and  these  alone  might  be  baptized. 
Married  people  were  not  admissible,  nor  was  any  ceremony 
of  marriage  regarded  as  a sacrament.  The  origin  of 
this  peculiarity  we  shall  understand  when  we  study  the 
influence  of  Buddhism  farther  Eastward.  However  we 
may  deplore  this  narrowing,  there  was  at  least  one  in- 


20 


Failure  in  Asia 


evitable  gain.  A cburcb  wbicb  deliberately  refuses  to 
admit  members  wbo  can  raise  children  in  the  nurture  and 
admonition  of  the  Lord  must  either  die  or  be  a missionary 
church.  And  this  latter  alternative  was  joyfully  elected. 

One  more  great  statesman  deserves  notice,  Eabbula 
by  name.  He  revised  the  old  Bible,  adding  more  books, 
modernising  the  language,  and  creating  a standard  text. 
He  absorbed  the  great  sects  of  Marcion  and  Bar-Daisan, 
and  made  the  Persian  Church  one.  But  even  as  he 
brought  about  this  unity,  complete  by  his  death  in  435 
A.D.,  fresh  troubles  were  arising,  due  to  the  propensity  of 
the  Greeks  to  raise  theological  questions  about  the  Person 
of  Christ.  The  Persians  did  not  sympathise,  and  after 
some  hesitation  cut  the  knot  by  breaking  off  all  fellow- 
ship with  the  Greeks.  The  Persian  Church  was  labelled 
by  the  Greeks,  “ Nestorian  ” ; but  this  obscures  the  great 
fact  that  the  Persian  Syrians  were  tired  of  the  whole 
subject,  and  were  eager  to  develop  on  their  own  lines. 
The  Greeks  in  revenge  destroyed  the  college  at  Edessa, 
and  the  centre  of  gravity  now  shifted  really  to  the  twin 
cities  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon  on  the  Tigris,  the  new  Persian 
capital  forty  miles  north  of  the  ancient  Babylon,  from 
which  city  the  Patriarch  now  took  his  title. 

Thus  thoroughly  detached  from  European  Christianity, 
the  Persian  Church  organised  anew,  and  soon  found 
itself  confronted  with  a reformed  Zoroastrianism  furnished 
with  a revised  edition  of  the  Avesta.  The  State  Keligion 
taught  the  lordship  of  Ahura  Mazda,  a good  and  wise 
spirit,  ruling  a band  of  angels  through  six  archangels, 


Two  Gtreat  Messages 


21 


but  opposed  by  an  evil  spirit.  It  upheld  a lofty  morality 
by  the  promise  of  a resurrection  and  a future  judgement 
leading  to  an  eternal  heaven  or  hell ; and  it  provided 
an  elaborate  ritual  of  purification.  Much  of  this  the 
Persian  Christians  agreed  with ; but  they  had  two  great 
messages  to  the  Zoroastrian — that  sin  could  be  forgiven 
through  Jesus  Christ  without  the  need  of  burdensome 
ceremonial,  and  that  the  whole  tone  of  life  could  be  raised 
by  the  help  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  melancholy  to 
confess  that  even  after  the  Zoroastrian  forces  were  divided 
by  the  new  departures  of  Mazdak,  no  great  impression 
was  made  by  the  Christians,  though  it  must  in  fairness 
be  allowed  that  the  law  inflicting  death  for  perverting  a 
Zoroastrian  was  no  dead  letter. 

Yet,  as  we  know  that  similar  prohibitions  have  never 
by  themselves  been  efiectual,  we  are  bound  to  ask  what 
internal  weakness  there  was  in  the  Persian  Church  during 
the  Zoroastrian  period.  The  answer  is  simple — the  lack 
of  any  vernacular  version  of  the  Bible.  When  their 
old  Syriac  college  at  Edessa  was  destroyed,  and  when 
they  founded  a new  one  at  Nisibis,  they  had  a grand 
opportunity  to  cut  adrift  from  the  West  in  every  way, 
and  to  naturahse  themselves  most  thoroughly.  But  there 
was  one  peculiar  hindrance  which  has  always  handicapped 
the  dwellers  on  the  Tigris — the  absence  of  a simple  system 
of  writing.  The  ancient  cuneiform  is  a byword  for  its 
complexities  ; and  although  an  alphabet  had  been  worked 
out  by  old  Persians,  yet  the  Parthians  hardly  knew  how 
to  write  their  language,  and  for  more  than  a thousand 


22 


Failure  in  Asia 


words  of  importance  wrote  the  Syriac  word  iastead,  thus 
exactly  reverting  to  the  curious  hybrid  custom  of  the 
Babylonians.^  But  even  if  an  expository  translation  of  the 
ancient  Avesta  were  appended  to  it  in  this  heterogeneous 
jumble,  where  for  the  word  written  was  pronounced  the 
corresponding  word  in  another  tongue,  we  can  readily 
understand  that  the  Persian  Christians  hesitated  to  abandon 
their  pure  Syriac  for  such  pidgin-Persian  ; as  a matter 
of  fact,  “ Pahlavi  ” (as  the  Parthian  form  of  writing 
was  styled)  was  hardly  used  except  for  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Zoroastrians.  Yet  if  it  be  true  that  the  Jews  ren- 
dered their  Law  into  Arabic  and  Persic  by  827  a.d.,  we 
can  hardly  acquit  the  Christians  of  negligence  ; and  it  is 
not  pleasant  to  find  that  leisure  was  found  by  bishops 
to  write  learned  treatises  in  Persian  and  Arabic,  and 
even  to  translate  Aristotle,  but  not  to  translate  the 
Scriptures. 

Without  a real  vernacular  Bible  the  Christians  were 
handicapped.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  they 
were  not  corrupted  like  their  European  contemporaries. 
Their  clergy  held  fast  to  the  apostolic  order  that  they 
should  marry,  since  a synod  in  499  a.d.  had  faced  this 
matter  and  altered  the  custom  mentioned  by  Afrahat.  No 
image  or  picture  laid  them  open  to  any  charge  of  idolatry  ; 
no  stone  altar  ousted  the  wooden  table  for  the  Lord’s 
Supper,  and  exposed  them  to  the  blame  of  offering  sacrifice. 

^ We  have  a similar  custom,  e.g.  “ 112  lb.,  ».e.  1 cwt.,  for  £1,  ISs.  4d. 
per  lb.,  etc.,”  where  the  Latin  abbreviations,  however  familiar  to  the 
commercial  clerk,  confuse  the  foreigner  expecting  English. 


Tolerated 


23 


Yet  we  have  seen  one  striking  instance  of  their  attach- 
ment to  relics,  and  this  feeling  of  theirs  was  destined  to 
aid  a tremendous  change.  One  of  the  latest  Shahs  was 
favourable  to  Christians,  and  even  built  churches  ; but  in 
war  with  the  Greek  Empire  he  captured  Jerusalem  and 
carried  ofE  what  purported  to  be  the  true  cross.  The 
Persian  Christians  were  not  pleased  with  having  this 
in  their  midst ; but  were  furious  at  the  insult  to  their 
rehgion,  intended  as  such  by  the  Zoroastrians,  and 
executed  by  the  help  of  thousands  of  Jews.  When, 
therefore,  the  Muslim  armies  presently  attacked  the  Shah, 
first  a vassal  Christian  king  submitted,  then  the  Christians 
generally  welcomed  the  invaders.  A pathetic  story  is  told 
of  the  assassination  of  the  last  native  Shah  in  a miller’s 
hut,  and  of  his  body  being  indebted  for  decent  burial  to 
the  Bishop  of  Merv,  who  caused  the  Christians  to  build 
a church  over  his  grave. 

Under  Muslim  rule  the  persecution  ceased ; toleration 
was  granted  on  condition  that  no  efiort  was  made  to  win 
converts  from  Islam.  The  same  embargo  was  laid  on 
the  Zoroastrians,  and  at  length  the  two  rehgions  met  on 
equal  terms.  In  the  homeland  both  long  maintained  their 
footing,  and  in  the  Arabian  Nights  we  read  how  in  the 
days  of  Aaron  the  Just,  cahph  of  Baghdad,  Jews,  Christians, 
Zoroastrians,  and  Muslims  were  the  four  recognised  groups. 
But  as  usually  happens,  the  intruding  religion  came  to 
terms  with  its  predecessor,  absorbing  much  of  its  teaching 
and  practice,  notably  its  intense  stress  on  ceremonial 
purification.  Thereby  Persian  Islam  isolated  itself,  and 


24 


Failure  in  Asia 


to-day  tlie  Shi’ah.  sect  is  widely  apart  from  the  mass  of 
Muhammad’s  followers ; organised  largely  in  dervish 
orders,  and  with  a mystic  theology.  Very  few  Persians 
hold  fast  to  the  old  national  rehgion  in  its  purity,  nine 
thousand  living  in  an  obscure  part  of  the  land  ; the  ancient 
customs  of  the  Parsees  only  attract  attention  from  the 
visitor  to  Bombay,  who  is  requested  not  to  misuse  fire  by 
smoking  on  the  street  cars,  and  who  sees  the  vultures 
hang  around  the  Towers  of  Silence. 

Far  other  was  the  destiny  of  Persian  Christianity.  When 
the  hour  came  that  proved  so  fateful  to  the  ancient  Persian 
faith,  Christianity  awoke  again  to  the  consciousness  of  its 
missionary  calling.  To  persuade  the  conquerors  was  for- 
bidden, but  the  armies  of  Islam  had  spent  their  strength 
in  the  attack  on  Persia,  and,  except  for  one  feeble  wave 
that  broke  on  Sindh,  the  Arabs  went  no  farther.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  the  Persian  Church  sent  forth  great 
missions  to  India  and  to  China,  and  renewed  its  youth  like 
the  eagle.  WonderfxiUy  does  God  repeat  Himself ! When 
Israel  was  held  in  captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Babylon, 
Jehovah  sent  Cyrus  to  smite  down  that  empire  and  set  free 
His  people  ; it  proved  a revival  of  religion  for  them  else- 
where even  while  it  established  the  faith  of  Zoroaster  on 
the  spot.  Now  that  the  Zoroastrians  held  down  the 
Christian  Church  in  bondage,  and  in  sloth  also,  God  raised 
up  a new  deliverer,  as  hard  to  recognise  for  God’s  servant 
as  Cyrus  had  been,  and  the  Caliph  Omar  set  the  Christians 
free  to  go  forth  with  the  Message  of  salvation  to  the  greater 
empires  Eastward.  And  what  a rebuke  is  here  for  the 


Educators 


25 


timorous  ! Many  to-day  would  argue  that  after  centuries 
of  persecution  the  Church  was  enfeebled,  and  that  this 
respite  gave  them  now  a caU  to  Home  Missions,  to  rebuild 
the  walls  and  repair  the  breaches ; this  is  exactly  what 
the  Enghsh  Nonconformists  did  in  1689  a.d.,  and  the 
selfish,  narrow  pohcy  led  to  dry  rot  and  aU  but  death. 
Such  freedom  is  a call  to  strengthen  the  stakes  and  lengthen 
the  cords,  to  go  forth  and  extend. 

Nor  was  the  foreign  enterprise  allowed  to  mask  in- 
difierence  to  home  duties.  When  the  ignorance  of  the 
Arabs  had  been  long  in  contact  with  the  civilisation  of 
Persia,  and  when  Ajab  chivalry  was  fading  away  so  that 
the  Turks  were  the  chief  warriors,  then  Aaron  the  Just 
and  his  children  at  Baghdad  showed  themselves  desirous  of 
learning,  and  sent  out  commissions  to  procure  all  manner 
of  hterature,  Armenian,  Syrian,  Egyptian,  and  Greek, 
and  to  render  it  into  Arabic.  At  once  the  Christians 
came  to  the  front  as  interpreters  and  scholars,  and  to 
them  is  due  the  speedy  outburst  of  culture  in  the  cahph’s 
realm.  Naturally  they  did  not  ignore  their  own  Scriptures 
at  this  crisis,  and  soon  the  Psalms,  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Epistles  were  current  in  Arabic,  which,  as  the  court  tongue, 
had  spread  throughout  the  dominions  of  the  Arabs.  Indeed, 
A1  Kindy  even  ventured  to  put  out  an  Apology  for  the 
Christian  Faith.  Unhappily  the  Persian  Christians  for 
the  second  time  missed  their  opportunity,  and  retained 
the  Syriac  Bible  for  pubhc  use  ; and  by  the  time  that  the 
modern  Persian  tongue  had  evolved,  the  Syriac  was  so 
entrenched  in  the  afiections  of  the  clergy  that  a Persian 


26 


Failure  in  Asia 


version  made  no  headway.  This  neglect  is  the  more  morti- 
fying when  we  know  that  the  Jews  had  rendered  their 
Law  into  the  vernacular  before  500  a.d.,  and  had  trans- 
lated the  whole  Old  Testament  by  1300  a.d.  at  latest.  We 
do  not  know  that  even  the  Gospels  were  put  into  Persian 
till  1341  A.D.,  when  a Jewish  convert  saw  the  need ; and 
it  wiU  presently  appear  that  the  tide  of  success  was 
then  ebbing,  and  Christianity  was  near  its  extinction 
in  Persia. 

Yet  the  Church  had  not  failed  to  exercise  an  influence 
on  Islam  around  it.  While  Christians  might  not  on  peril 
of  death  seek  to  win  converts  direct,  a command  occasion- 
ally violated  with  honour  and  success,  yet  all  the  develop- 
ment of  Islam  at  Damascus  and  Baghdad  was  in  a Christian 
atmosphere.  The  very  conception  of  the  right  of  (Ecu- 
menical Councils  to  determine  doctrine  with  authority 
passed  over  to  Islam,  and  gave  force  to  the  Agreement  of 
the  early  Companions,  and  of  the  recognised  Expositors 
of  the  Muslim  Law.  Then,  whereas  Islam  retained  crude 
animal  sacrifices  only  at  Mecca  itself  on  pilgrimage,  yet 
the  doctrine  of  a vicarious  sacrifice  making  atonement  for 
sin  has  been  taken  up  by  Persian  Muhammadans.  But 
our  subject  is  not  the  development  of  Christianity  in  its 
homes,  but  its  extension  by  pioneers  ; and  we  follow  the 
Persian  missionaries  next  to  India. 


Refugees  in  India 


27 


3.  India,  South  and  Noeth  ' 

Hidden  in  a trackless  and  primeval  wood. 

Long-buried  temples  of  an  unknown  race. 

And  one  colossal  idol ; on  its  face 
A changeless  sneer,  blighting  the  solitude. 

' Lewis  Morris. 

The  south-western  coasts  of  Asia  had  received  the  Gospel 
in  the  days  of  Thomas,  as  we  have  seen.  Unhappily 
we  are  not  able  to  trace  its  development  regularly.  After 
the  visit  of  Pantaenus  from  Alexandria,  we  hear  of  a 
Socotran  who  was  converted  and  sent  as  a missionary 
to  the  Arabian  coast  and  Abyssinia.  Then  in  522  a.d.  an 
Eg3rptian  Nestorian  travelling  these  seas  to  gather  facts, 
and  to  prove  that  the  earth  was  flat  and  not  globular,  found 
Persian  Christians  settled  round  the  coasts  of  South  India 
and  Ceylon,  and  discovered  that  in  doctrine  he  was  largely 
akin  to  them. 

But  when  the  cahphs  ruled  on  the  Tigris  a large  emi- 
gration took  place,  so  important  that  the  Persian  settlers 
obtained  a charter  of  self-government  from  the  local  king 
in  the  south-west  of  India.  And  when  about  822  a.d. 
this  was  reinforced  by  a second  large  company,  not  only 
was  a new  charter  granted,  but  presently  the  king  himself 
became  Christian.  Such  a conversion  often  leads  to  im- 
portant results,  but  the  dynasty  died  out,  and  a neighbour- 
ing ruler  asserted  his  overlordship  and  checked  wholesale 
conversion.  The  immigrants  intermarried  with  the  natives, 
and  the  Christian  community  grew  steadily.  Monuments 


28 


Failure  in  Asia 


still  exist  on  whicli  may  be  seen  Persian  crosses  with 
inscriptions  in  Syriac  and  Pablavi.  For  unfortunately 
there  are  no  traces  that  the  Scriptures  were  ever  rendered 
into  Tamil ; this  was  not  attempted  till  the  Dutch  began 
it  in  Ceylon  about  1688  a.d.,  and  when  the  Germans  took  it 
up  on  the  mainland  they  received  apparently  no  help  from 
this  ancient  Church,  for  their  vernacular  had  now  diverged 
from  that  of  the  Eastern  coast.  Nor  was  it  till  1811  a.d. 
that,  at  the  suggestion  of  an  Enghshman,  they  rendered 
the  Gospels  into  Malay. 

While,  however,  the  Persian  missionaries  thus  neglected 
one  obvious  duty,  they  strove  to  unite  the  advantages  of 
a native  church  with  filial  submission  to  the  motherland. 
Their  archbishop  was  always  a Persian,  while  their  deacons, 
priests,  and  bishops  were  all  local  men  ; and  not  only  were 
they  all  married  according  to  New  Testament  prescription 
and  Persian  wont,  but  the  bishopric  was  hereditary,  as 
was  the  custom  of  the  district,  in  singular  harmony  with 
what  we  observed  in  Armenia. 

Nor  was  India  influenced  in  the  south  alone.  The 
valley  of  the  Ganges  is  the  most  productive  in  population 
and  in  thought  of  all  the  peninsula,  and  perhaps  of 
all  the  world.  Here  Buddhism  had  been  known  for 
a millennium,  had  been  the  estabhshed  rehgion  for  eight 
centuries,  and  had  been  propagated  by  a missionary 
king  over  aU  India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon.  Let  us  try 
and  realise  the  religious  history  of  the  peoples  there,  to 
whom  Christianity  was  about  to  be  offered. 

When  first  we  get  a gUmpse  of  them  and  their  cults, 


The  Buddha 


29 


it  is  in  the  orders  of  later  reformers  as  to  what  was  to  be 
opposed.  From  them  we  read  of  palmistry,  auguries, 
ghost-laying,  astrology,  mediums  ; of  worship  of  the  god- 
dess of  luck,  of  kings,  of  serpents.  Among  these  aborig- 
ines in  the  Panjab,  and  later  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  came  a slender  body  of  Arians  with  a faith 
faintly  akin  to  that  of  Zoroaster.  Proudly  they  held 
aloof  from  the  dark-skinned  natives,  and  sought  to  pre- 
serve their  loftier  religion  ; but  as  they  intermarried,  the 
coarser  beliefs  of  their  wives  tainted  their  children,  while 
the  natives  paid  even  less  attention  to  the  gods  of  their 
conquerors  than  the  modern  natives  do  to  the  religion 
of  their  present  rulers. 

About  the  time  when  Haggai  and  Zechariah  were  by 
leave  of  Darius  promoting  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  or  possibly  a httle  earlier,  there  arose  a 
Nepalese  noble  with  aspirations  after  better  things.  For 
a few  years  he  sought  help  from  ascetic  practices,  as  was 
widely  the  custom ; but  failing  in  that  way  he  turned  to 
contemplation,  and  thought  out  a wonderful  pessimist 
philosophy.  From  the  enlightenment  that  he  believed  he 
had  gained  he  was  styled  the  Buddha.  Henceforth  he 
set  himself  to  combat  sorrow  by  annihilating  desire  and 
cultivating  purity  and  love.  And  at  once  he  began 
itinerant  preaching  in  the  lower  valley,  and  enlisted 
followers  who  came  by  hundreds  and  thousands.  On  the 
outer  circle  he  laid  five  commands — to  be  chaste  and 
temperate,  not  to  kill  or  steal  or  lie.  But  an  inner  circle  was 
formed  of  those  who  would  take  ten  vows,  pledging  them 


30 


Failure  in  Asia 


also  to  avoid  garlands  or  perfumes,  dancing  or  drama, 
money,  rich,  food  at  nights,  or  aught  but  a mat  to  sleep  on. 
Such  devotees  he  enrolled  with  a pledge  to  be  true  to  the 
Buddha,  to  the  Doctrine,  to  the  Order ; they  were  ton- 
sured and  clad  in  a special  gown.  Thus  arose  the  first 
monks. 

About  fifty  years  after  Malachi,  the  monks  organised 
into  communities,  with  chapter  meetings  in  which  they 
made  mutual  confession  of  sin,  when  they  chanted  over 
the  poems  which  recounted  their  Buddha’s  life  and  teach- 
ing. Then  came  the  visit  of  Alexander,  which  opened 
communications  between  India  and  the  West,  leading  to 
filtration  of  Buddhist  thought  and  practices  to  the  banks 
of  the  Nile  and  to  the  Anatolian  plateau.  Soon  after 
the  Jewish  Law  was  translated  into  Greek  at  Alexandria 
there  arose  a great  king,  Asoka,  who  subdued  aU  India 
and  Ceylon,  and  presently  adopted  Buddhism  as  his  court 
religion.  At  his  capital  of  Patna  the  monks  gathered 
in  council,  and  from  their  dehberations  emerged  the 
Canon  of  Buddhist  Scriptures,  now  for  the  first  time  com- 
mitted to  writing,  as  far  as  we  can  teU.  Asoka  proceeded 
to  build  temples  for  his  State  Keligion,  notably  at  the 
spot  where  the  Buddha  received  enlightenment,  Bodh 
Gaya.  But  more  than  this,  he  was  a missionary  king, 
a combination  such  as  rarely  appears.  Six  bodies  of 
monks  did  he  dispatch — to  the  Indus,  Peshawar,  Kashmir, 
Burma,  Ceylon,  and  South  India.  And  he  estabhshed  two 
departments  of  state — one  to  superintend  pubhc  rehgion, 
the  other  to  propagate  it  in  foreign  parts. 


A Great  Epic 


31 


But  his  empire  crumbled,  and  Tatar  invaders  came  in 
through  the  north-west,  who  established  their  own  rule. 
On  the  one  hand,  this  opened  the  way  for  Buddhism  to 
raise  them,  and  to  go  back  along  their  track  till  it  reached 
China ; but  on  the  other,  it  facihtated  the  rise  of  a set  of 
scholars  who  promptly  ofiered  themselves  as  interpreters, 
and  set  to  work  to  undermine  Buddhism  and  exalt  them- 
selves. This  was  the  easier  as  the  Tatars,  in  accepting 
Buddhism,  debased  it.  And  so  these  scholars,  who  in- 
herited and  exaggerated  the  claims  of  the  Brahman 
priests  to  the  earher  invaders,  saw  that  they  must  stoop 
to  conquer.  They  gathered  up  aU  the  popular  legends 
not  utihsed  by  Buddhists,  and  wove  them  into  a Great 
Epic,  injecting  their  own  sacerdotal  theories  and  glorifying 
their  own  caste  perpetually.  And  thus,  when  Buddhism 
in  India  was  rotting  away  like  the  contemporary  North- 
umbrian paganism,  two  claimants  appeared  with  new 
rehgions  : Kumarila,  the  Brahman  priest  with  his  Indian 
sacerdotahsm,  and  a mission  band  from  Seleucia-Ctesiphon 
with  Christianity. 

Now,  the  Buddha  had  taken  great  pains  to  set  out 
his  ideal  of  what  was  Good  Form — so  we  may  translate 
the  technical  term.  But  he  was  wisely  silent  where  he 
knew  nothing — he  had  nothing  to  say  on  the  question  of 
God,  and  so  he  advocated  no  worship.  In  the  course  of 
centuries  his  followers  have  filled  that  gap  by  worshipping 
him,  and,  indeed,  the  earliest  monuments  were  huge 
domes  of  brick-work  built  over  relics  from  his  funeral 


pyre. 


32 


Failure  in  Asia 


The  Brahman  priests  were  ready  with  an  elastic  pan- 
theon, and  could  either  introduce  their  Arian  gods,  or 
adopt  some  aboriginal  deity,  or  exalt  some  popular  hero  ; 
and  so  the  Buddha  was  declared  to  be  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu,  one  of  the  gods  coming  to  be  most  regarded.  And 
on  the  other  hand,  they  appropriated  some  Christian  ele- 
ments. The  Great  Epic  has  plenty  to  say  about  a sly 
hero  named  Krishna ; the  similarity  of  name  may  have 
prompted  the  transference  to  him  of  many  stories  about 
the  birth  of  Christ — a virgin-wife  going  to  pay  taxes, 
birth  in  a stable,  adoration  of  the  wise  men,  massacre  of 
the  innocents,  miracles  wrought  in  infancy,  etc.  Then 
Krishna  thus  decked  out  is  declared  to  be  another  incarna- 
tion of  Vishnu  (a  stroke  to  conciliate  the  Arians),  and  this 
Krishna-Vishnu  is  associated  with  a shadowy  Brahma 
and  a bloody  Shiva  into  a triad  of  gods.  With  these 
amazing  loans  from  Christianity  the  Brahmans  felt  ready 
to  inoculate  the  people,  and  to  defy  the  purer  and  stronger 
religion. 

There  was  a time  when  the  pretensions  of  the  Brahman 
priests  had  been  absurd,  and  when  the  Buddha  could 
found  a movement  that  made  no  room  at  all  for  priests, 
largely  because  it  was  altogether  silent  about  God.  But 
for  belief  either  in  thirty-three  or  in  thirty-three  milhon 
gods,  priests  become  almost  a necessity  to  prescribe  the 
due  ritual  and  to  mediate  effectively.  So  the  Brahmans 
now  came  forward  with  theories  that  they  had  long  in- 
cubated, closed  up  their  ranks,  and  declared  themselves 
an  hereditary  and  indispensable  priesthood.  Provided 


Hinduism  Leavened 


33 


they  could  be  acknowledged  as  leaders  of  society,  entitled 
to  respect  and  to  huge  fees,  nay,  even  to  be  worshipped  as 
Divine,  then  there  was  nothing  they  could  not  absorb, 
no  doctrine,  no  worship,  no  god,  no  conduct  however  vile. 

Christians  have  certainly  stooped  again  and  again, 
have  borrowed  much  from  the  strong  local  religions ; but 
they  have  never  been  willing  to  go  these  lengths.  So 
the  Christian  mission  failed  to  plant  the  pure  faith  on 
the  Ganges.  But  if  it  failed  as  a whole,  it  seems  to  have 
produced  one  remarkable  development  which  may  be 
traced  in  the  Divine  Song,  inserted  presently  in  the  Great 
Epic.  A whole  literature  has  grown  up  about  a new 
doctrine  taught  here  for  the  first  time  ; and  from  an 
official  text-book  Dr.  Grierson  quotes  the  following  com- 
pressed but  literal  translation  : 

“ Bhakti  means  faith,  in  the  sense  of  absolute  devotion 
to  a personal  God.  It  is  defined  as  ‘ an  affection  fixed 
upon  the  Lord.’  It  is  not  belief.  Those  who  hate  the 
Lord  may  believe,  but  they  have  not  faith.  It  may  be 
present  in  outward  acts  of  worship,  but  they  are  not 
of  themselves  faith.  It  must  be  devoted  to  a person, 
not  to  have  a system  of  doctrine.  It  is  ‘ abiding  ’ in  Him. 
It  may  not  be  devotion  for  some  spiritual  gain,  for  it 
must  be  purely  unselfish.  ‘ Works  ’ are  not  faith,  nor  can 
they  be  united  with  faith  unless  they  are  pure,  that  is, 
surrendered  to  Him  as  the  One  who  inspired  the  believer 
to  perform  the  work.  Works  not  so  surrendered  partake 
of  the  nature  of  sin,  and  are  but  bondage.  Faith  must 
be  directed  to  the  Supreme,  or  to  one  of  His  incarnations. 

4 


34 


Failure  in  Asia 


He  alone  is  free  from  taint  of  earth,  and  hence  He  alone 
is  purely  unselfish.  He  became  incarnate,  and  descended 
from  His  high  estate  unselfishly  and  solely  to  abohsh 
others’  woes.  We  know  faith  by  its  fruits.  Such  are 
respect  and  honour  paid  to  the  Lord,  celebration  of  His 
praise,  continuing  to  live  for  His  sake,  considering  every- 
thing as  His,  regarding  Him  as  being  in  all  things,  resigna- 
tion to  His  wUl,  sorrow  for  sin,  absence  of  anger,  envy, 
greed,  and  impure  thoughts.” 

Thus  far,  then,  Christianity  leavened  the  popular 
religion,  outwardly  with  the  tales  of  Christ’s  infancy 
distorted  and  naturahsed,  but  inwardly  with  the  great 
doctrine  of  Faith  which  works  by  Love,  a faith  directed 
to  God  incarnate  as  Saviour,  and  evinciug  itself  in  renewed 
life.  Next,  we  may  trace  another  stream  of  influence 
which  came  from  the  Tamil  Church  of  the  South,  whose 
progress  we  could  note  step  by  step  and  century  by 
century,  but  can  now  mention  here  only  the  crises. 

It  was  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  in  Western  lands 
the  Second  Crusade  was  afoot,  and  in  the  Baltic  the  isles 
were  being  conquered  for  Christ,  that  a heathen  priest 
of  South  India  named  Ramanuja  foimd  his  way  to  the 
North  with  a new  doctrine.  By  this  time  the  old  Northern 
language  in  which  the  Buddhist  hterature  was  written 
had  given  way  to  Hindi,  while  the  Brahman  priests 
had  evolved  an  artificial  tongue  called  Sanskrit,  which 
always  has  remained  the  property  of  a narrow  educated 
circle.  By  this  time  the  Buddhists  seem  to  have  been 
absorbed  into  the  Shiva  sect,  or  to  be  just  finding  a new 


A Hindi  Milton 


35 


opportunity  by  tbe  contact  of  Islam  with  their  strong- 
hold on  the  lower  Ganges.  It  seems  very  probable  that 
the  mass  of  Bengali  Muslims  are  descended  from  the 
Buddhists,  who  found  a double  boon  offered  them — 
escape  from  the  domineering  of  their  age-long  enemies, 
the  Brahman  priests,  and  a satisfaction  for  the  natural 
craving  after  a god,  without  the  degrading  and  incredible 
tales  now  worked  into  the  Great  Epic. 

Now  the  doctrine  which  Eamanuja  brought  from  the 
South  was  elaborated  by  a succession  of  disciples,  of 
whom  the  most  famous  was  Ramanand,  flourishing  when 
the  last  tribes  of  Europe  were  accepting  Christ,  and  when 
Wycliffe  had  just  given  a new  light  in  England.  At 
length,  in  the  days  of  Shakespeare,  there  arose  at  Benares 
a Brahman  priest  called  TulasI  Das,  who  became  the 
Milton  of  the  Hindus.  Rama,  heir  of  the  king  of  Oudh, 
was  already  the  hero  of  a poem  in  the  sacred  Sanskrit ; 
Tulasi  Das  now  wrote,  not  m an  unknown  tongue,  but 
in  the  vernacular  Hindi,  another  poem  on  the  same  theme. 
This  book,  almost  contemporary  with  the  Enghsh  Genevan 
Bible,  the  first  to  win  popular  affection,  is  now  practically 
the  Bible  of  the  Ramaites,  said  to  number  a hundred 
millions.  Strange  to  say,  Enghsh  scholars,  misled  by 
the  Brahman  priests,  have  hardly  made  acquaintance 
with  this  work,  which  feeds  the  souls  of  the  largest  sect 
in  India.  And  one  who  knows  it  well  blames  our  mis- 
sionaries for  their  ignorance  that  it  teaches  much  Christian 
doctrine — doubtless  intermixed  with  superstition,  doubtless 
with  the  name  of  Rama  where  we  put  the  name  of  Christ, 


36 


Failure  in  Asia 


but  still  doctrine  essentially  and  bistorically  Cbristian. 
Hear  an  exposition  : 

“ There  is  one  Glod  and  Father  of  all  who  became  in- 
carnate in  this  sinful  world  as  ‘Kama,  the  Kedeemer  of 
the  world.’  God  became  incarnate  as  Rama,  not  merely 
to  slay  a demon,  but  to  save  souls.  Rama  lived  on  this 
world  as  a man,  experiencing  man’s  purest  happiness, 
man’s  heaviest  sorrows.  He  made  friends  with  and 
received  help  from  the  very  humblest  beings,  even  from 
aborigines  whose  mere  touch  was  defilement  to  the  Brah- 
man-Pharisee, beings  so  degraded  that  birth-proud 
Aryans  looked  upon  them  as  level  with  the  monkeys  of 
the  forest.  Rama  is  now  in  heaven.  He  has  not  lost 
His  personality  ; so  to  speak.  He  has  not  disincarnated 
Himself,  but  is  still  Rama,  the  loving,  the  compassionate, 
the  sinless.  Sin  is  hateful,  not  only  because  it  condemns 
the  sinner  to  future  torment,  but  chiefly  because  it  is 
incompatible  with  Rama’s  nature.  Yet  no  one  is  too 
great  a sinner  for  Rama  to  save,  if  he  will  only  come  to 
Rama.  The  sinner  must  confess  his  sin,  and  in  all  good 
faith  must  throw  himself  naked  of  all  good  works  before 
Rama,  and  Rama  will  stretch  out  His  hand  to  save  him, 
as  He  has  done  to  countless  others  before.  Rama  has 
been  a man,  and  knows  what  man’s  sins  and  sorrows  are. 
The  sorrows  He  knows  by  having  sorrowed,  the  sins  He 
knows  by  His  ineffable  compassion  alone,  for  He  has 
never  sinned  Himself.  Rama  is  the  loving  Father  of 
every  human  being ; and  we.  His  children,  are  therefore 
brothers,  and  must  love  each  other  as  brothers,  just  as 


Heathenism  Purified 


37 


we  love  Him  as  a father.  Faith,  devotion,  directed  to 
Rama,  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  salvation,  and  salva- 
tion is  a life  of  pure  bhss  with  Him  after  death.  Faith 
in  His  name  is  a httle  boat ; the  Holy  Master  Himself 
is  the  steersman ; stretching  out  His  loving , arms  He 
crieth,  ‘ Come,  I will  ferry  thee  across.’  Now,  all  this,” 
adds  Dr.  Grierson,  “if  we  substituted  the  name  of  our 
Lord  for  that  of  Rama,  is  the  teaching  of  Christianity, 
and  has  been  borrowed  from  it.  It  has  come  down 
through  many  generations  of  Hindu  thought,  and  it  is 
astonishing  that  it  has  been  preserved  with  such 
fidelity.” 

Thus  the  middle-class  worshippers  of  Krishna  have 
learned  from  Christianity  the  great  doctrine  of  Faith  in  an 
incarnate  Saviour ; the  thoughtful  worshippers  of  Rama 
have  added  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  who  so  loved  the  world 
that  He  sent  His  Son  to  redeem  the  world,  a second 
doctrine  derived  directly  from  Christian  teaching  but 
thought  out  and  expressed  in  Hindu  form.  Now  advance 
and  observe  that  even  the  lowly  Shivaites  have  one  sect 
which,  in  immediate  contact  with  the  Tamil  Christians,  has 
thrown  off  aU  but  pure  deism,  and,  without  abandoning 
the  name  of  the  native  god,  has  at  least  purified  the  con- 
ception of  Him.  Here  is  one  of  their  hymns  : 

“ How  many  various  flowers, 

Did  I,  in  bygone  hours. 

Cull  for  the  gods,  and  in  their  honour  strew  ! 

In  vain  how  many  a prayer 
I breathed  into  the  air. 

And  made,  with  many  forms,  obeisance  due. 


38 


Failure  in  Asia 


“ Beating  my  breast,  aloud 
How  oft  I called  the  crowd 
To  drag  the  village  car  ! How  oft  I strayed 
In  manhood’s  prime  to  lave 
Sunwards  the  flowing  wave, 

And,  circhng  Shiva  fanes,  my  homage  paid  ! 


“ But  they,  the  truly  wise. 

Who  know  and  realise 

Where  dwells  the  Shepherd  of  the  worlds,  will  ne’er. 

To  any  visible  shrine 
As  if  it  were  Divine, 

Deign  to  raise  hands  of  worship  or  of  prayer.” 

Reviewing,  then,  the  movement  of  thought,  and  the 
development  of  rehgions  in  India,  we  see  that  three  great 
influences  have  been  brought  to  bear  on  it,  irrespective  of 
Islam : the  agnostic  morahty  of  the  Buddha,  Turanian ; 
the  polytheistic  teaching  of  the  Vedas,  Arian ; the 
Trinitarian  Gospel  of  the  Christ,  Semitic. 

The  Buddha’s  message,  lofty  as  it  was,  had  two  radical 
defects  ; it  had  no  word  about  God,  it  had  no  gospel  for 
women.  The  Brahman’s  message  had  all  too  many  gods, 
but  had  no  morality  worth  speaking  of,  while  to  women 
it  said  that  their  religion  was  to  serve  their  husbands,  and 
to  die  on  their  funeral  pyres  if  worthy.  The  Buddha’s 
message  has  been  utterly  rejected  by  his  own  people,  a 
warning  for  those  who  think  that  a pure  morahty  can 
maintain  itself  apart  from  roots  in  the  Divine.  The 
Brahmans  have  won  a double  victory  : they  have  exalted 
themselves  into  a sacerdotal  caste  indispensable  to  all 
worship  and  ranking  highest  in  the  social  scale  ; they  have 


Results  and  Problems 


39 


extended  their  power  from  the  upper  Ganges  over  the 
whole  land.  But  they  have  done  this  at  the  cost  of 
abandoning  nearly  aU  their  ancestral  rehgion  except  a 
few  names,  and  of  adopting  and  sanctioning  whatever 
the  people  wanted. 

Christianity  has  technically  failed,  for  her  adherents 
number  not  six  hundred  thousand,  apart  from  the  converts 
of  European  missionaries  during  the  last  century.  But 
in  reahty  she  has  impressed  some  of  her  cardinal  doctrines 
on  each  of  the  three  great  Hindu  sects,  and  her  leaven 
has  worked  chiefly  among  the  Ramaites,  most  numerous 
and  most  thoughtful.  There  are  Christian  doctrines, 
intertwined  doubtless  with  superstition,  but  stated  in 
language  understanded  of  the  people,  fashioned  into  native 
forms  by  the  people,  and  enshrined  in  books  better  known 
to  the  farmers  and  labourers  of  North  India  than  is  the 
Bible  to  the  Western  man  of  business. 

Surely  this  is  something  to  recognise  and  to  appreciate. 
The  modern  missionary  from  the  West  will  be  almost 
ciilpable  if  he  fails  to  acquaint  himself  with  this  work 
accomphshed,  and  if  he  acts  as  though  his  Grseco-Roman- 
Teuton  form  of  Christianity  must  needs  be  transplanted 
in  India.  Two  great  problems  demand  earnest  attention. 
First,  how  to  use  or  destroy  the  sacerdotal  influence  of 
the  Brahman.  It  may  be  used,  for  while  we  know  sacer- 
dotahsm  to  be  absolutely  incompatible  with  pure  Chris- 
tianity, we  have  seen  Martin  Luther,  Huldreich  Zwingli, 
Menno  Simons,  John  Knox,  themselves  priests,  smite 
down  priestcraft.  And  what  Ramanand  and  Ramanuja 


40 


Failure  in  Asia 


and  Tulasi  Das  have  begun,  may  yet  be  accomplished 
by  a new  reforming  Brahman,  imbued  with  the  Spirit  of 
Christ.  The  second  problem  is  how  to  smelt  out  the 
abundant  dross  of  idolatry  and  superstition,  and  leave 
the  pure  gold  already  introduced  by  Christians.  If  we 
are  ready  to  recognise  the  hand  of  God  in  accomplished 
facts,  we  may  note  the  presence  of  Islam  with  its  horror 
of  idolatry,  and  ask  what  part  God  assigns  to  it  in  the 
religious  future  of  India.  And  then  we  see  with  joy  one 
great  advantage  which  Christianity  has,  sharing  it  with 
none  other ; that  it  has  a message  for  women,  and  can 
make  the  name  and  the  lot  of  widows  as  honourable  as  it 
is  now  miserable. 

4.  China,  Buddhist  and  Confucian 

Why  has  the  drought  been  sent  upon  my  land  ? 

No  cause  for  it  know  1.  Full  early  rose 
My  prayers  for  a good  year ; not  late  was  I 
In  offering  sacrifice  unto  the  Lords 
Of  the  four  quarters  and  the  land. 

In  the  high  heaven  God  listens  not.  And  yet 
Surely  a reverent  man  as  I have  been 
To  all  intelUgent  spirits  should  not  be 
The  victim  of  their  overwhelming  wrath. 

Chinese  Book  of  Odes. 

The  Persian  mission  to  India  has  therefore  left  deep 
traces  ; but  far  other  was  the  fate  of  that  dispatched  more 
to  the  North.  Here  was  another  great  empire,  with  two 
religions  well  established  on  the  usual  foundation  of 
superstition.  The  purely  native  cult  was  that  of  Confu- 


“ Show  us  a God  ” 


41 


cius,  wHch.  had  endured  some  eleven  centuries.  This 
philosopher  had,  like  the  Buddha,  drawn  up  a code  of 
behaviour  showing  how  to  comport  oneself  in  the  family, 
the  state,  the  inner  life  ; and  again  like  the  Buddha,  he 
offered  no  advice  on  how  to  behave  towards  God,  nor  had 
he  anything  to  say  about  a future  life  or  salvation.  How- 
ever suitable  was  this  system  for  rulers,  who  found  a 
sort  of  unconditional  submission  to  authority  inculcated, 
it  left  the  field  open  for  religion  properly  so  called,  a 
revelation  of  God,  and  opportunity  to  hold  intercourse 
with  Him. 

And  so,  about  the  time  when  James,  Paid,  and  Peter 
were  ending  their  careers,  a State  Commission  was  sent 
in  search  of  a religion,  and  especially  to  investigate 
Buddhism.  It  returned  with  a sandalwood  statue  of  the 
Buddha,  and  with  forty-two  books,  which  were  soon  trans- 
lated. Now  these  books  represented  a modification  of  the 
original  doctrine,  somewhat  rmder  the  influence  of  the 
Brahman  priests.  The  emphasis  was  shifted  from  self- 
culture, and  it  was  declared  that  the  character  of  a great 
man  could  be  transmitted  to  another  incarnation  able 
not  only  to  save  himself,  but  also  to  save  others.  This, 
of  course,  led  easily  to  the  worship  of  the  historic  Buddha 
himself,  though  it  was  only  later,  and  in  India,  that  he 
was  identified  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 

Thus  China  was  provided  with  a doctrine  about  the 
future,  a god,  a saviour,  and  with  an  organised  monasti- 
cism,  all  of  which  could  be  amalgamated  with  the  Con- 
fucian  code  of  behaviour.  A native  at  once  raised  an 


42 


Failure  in  Asia 


opposition  religion,  establishing  himself  as  a kind  of  per- 
manent head,  and  pandering  to  low  superstition,  even 
preparing  a pill  for  immortality.  On  the  one  hand,  he 
laid  hold  of  a philosophy  coeval  with  Confucius ; on  the 
other,  he  borrowed  freely  from  Buddhism,  and  so  founded 
what  to-day  is  known  as  Taoism. 

Buddhism,  however,  at  first  grew  better  in  the  fertile 
Chinese  soil,  and  in  a way  very  different  from  its  founder’s 
expectations,  or  from  its  development  in  Ceylon.  And 
when  England  was  still  a welter  of  barbarous  and  cruel 
pagans,  all  China  was  united  into  one  empire  whose  ruler 
favoured  Buddhism.  We  hear  of  thirty  thousand  monas- 
teries with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  monks,  besides,  of 
course,  far  more  adherents  who  never  took  the  vows. 
But  in  the  next  generation  a new  dynasty  withdrew  its 
patronage,  and  within  a few  years  the  Christian  mission 
band  had  reached  the  capital,  then  Si-Ngan-Fu,  finding 
a splendid  opportunity  for  propagation  at  the  very  centre 
of  power.  They  were  not  indeed  pioneers,  for  as  early  as 
500  A.D.,  Persian  monks  had  reached  China,  and  had  taken 
back  the  secret  of  silk-culture,  even  to  Europe  ; but  it 
needed  the  calamity  of  Islam  to  send  forth  this  party 
under  Olopun,  fired  with  missionary  zeal. 

Sacred  books  were  in  the  baggage  of  the  party ; and 
with  a true  instinct  that  this  was  a literary  people,  one 
of  the  earliest  tasks  was  to  prepare  a Chinese  Bible.  The 
emperor  was  willing  to  issue  an  edict  of  toleration,  and 
soon  built  a church  on  the  public  square,  after  which  the 
way  was  open  for  steady  propagation.  Sixty  years  later 


Monument  at  Si-Ngan 


43 


arrived  a Zoroastrian  embassy  with  its  sacred  books,  on 
wbicb  the  dowager-empress  smiled,  but  presently  Christian 
monasteries  were  sanctioned.  Fresh  helpers  arrived  from 
Herat  and  Persia,  and  when  Charles  the  Great  was  con- 
quering the  Saxons,  one  of  these  named  Adam,  the  Vicar- 
episcopal  and  Pope  of  China,  erected  a monument  detailing 
the  progress  of  the  work,  and  commemorating  not  only 
the  lord  John  Joshua,  the  universal  patriarch  away  in 
Persia,  but  many  also  of  his  own  helpers  in  China,  whose 
names  aU  appear,  not  in  Chinese  or  Persian  or  Arabic, 
but  in  the  antique  Syriac  which  continued  to  be  their 
ecclesiastical  tongue.  More  interesting  is  it  to  read  in 
Chinese  the  names  of  sixty  Chinese  priests,  for  these  show 
that,  though  the  movement  was  still  afi&liated  with  the 
Persian  Church,  it  had  now  struck  root  in  native  soil. 

Unhappily  the  love  of  dominion  inherent  in  all  men 
checked  the  indigenous  movement.  Confucians  had  no 
Church,  and  could  have  no  head  of  a Church.  The  Chris- 
tians of  China  all  looked  to  the  Patriarch  of  Babylon  as 
their  Supreme  Head  on  earth,  and  thereby  they  were 
certain  to  arouse  against  them  national  feeling.  The 
occasion  came  when  a native  dynasty  revived  Confucian- 
ism and  established  it  as  a State  Eeligion,  and  if  the  Tatars 
of  the  North  favoured  Buddhism  in  its  idolatrous  forms, 
the  Christians  had  not  the  courage  to  throw  themselves 
purely  on  the  Chinese. 

Indeed,  when  Wu-Tsung  ordered  the  destruction  of  all 
the  Buddhist  monasteries  and  the  return  of  all  their  inmates 
to  civil  life,  in  845  a.d.,  he  also  ordered  all  foreign 


44 


Failure  in  Asia 


missionaries  whatever,  of  every  religion,  to  cease  work. 
And  an  Arabian  monk  sent  about  980  a.d.  with  five  others 
to  organise  the  Church  better,  returned  in  dismay  to  say 
that  there  were  no  Christians  left  to  organise. 

When  the  next  effort  was  made  in  this  direction  it 
was  in  connection  with  the  Mongols.  This  people  from 
Central  Asia  broke  Eastward  over  the  Great  WaU  into 
China ; Southward  into  Persia,  where  they  became  over- 
lords  of  the  Christian  Patriarch  of  Babylon  at  Baghdad, 
and  where  they  broke  the  dominion  of  the  Mushms ; 
Westward  into  Eussia,  Moravia,  and  Hungary,  tiU  it 
seemed  as  if  the  whole  civihsed  world  would  be  submerged 
by  a wave  of  barbarism.  Such  a unifying  of  the  Western 
world  in  the  days  of  Paul  had  given  a splendid  opportunity 
for  the  Christianising  of  the  whole  Eoman  Empire,  and 
now  the  Persians  saw  their  opportunity  to  do  the  same 
for  the  whole  of  the  great  East.  Their  missionaries  were 
sent  throughout  the  Tatar  dominions,  and  so  it  came  to 
pass  that  the  thirteenth  century  saw  their  work  at  its 
zenith.  Indeed,  it  was  also  introduced  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  West,  so  long  isolated  from  Asiatic  Christianity,  so 
that  at  least  eight  Frenchmen  and  Itahans  visited  the  East 
between  1245  a.d.  and  1338  a.d.,  leaving  some  account 
of  what  they  saw ; and  our  own  Eoger  Bacon  recorded 
much  that  they  told  him. 

We  hear  of  Christian  priests  at  the  Tatar  camps,  with 
tent  chapels ; of  services  conducted  in  Turkish,  Arabic, 
and  Syriac ; of  the  chief  men  won  for  Christ,  and  even 
of  some  of  the  princes  being  baptized  and  trained  in  the 


A Tatar  Patriarch 


45 


faith..  We  hear  of  a vigorous  mission  to  the  Uigur  Tatars, 
taking  an  alphabet,  reducing  the  language  to  writing, 
and  apparently  rendering  some  parts  of  the  Bible  into  their 
tongue.  We  know  this  was  crowned  with  success  by  a 
Kerait  prince  adhering  to  Christianity,  whose  fame  reached 
Europe  as  Prester  John.  We  hear  of  handsome  stone 
churches  in  which  worshipped  the  chief  officers  of  the 
court ; and  in  those  days,  when  one  power  stretched  from 
the  Pacific  to  the  Danube,  it  hardly  surprises  us  to  hear 
of  an  Englishman  at  Karakoram  or  Pekin.  But  it  is 
surprising  to  hear  that  in  1250  a.d.  not  one  tenth 
of  the  Turks  were  Muslim,  most  being  Christian.  It  was 
but  a little  earlier  that  an  Englishman  was  chosen  Patriarch 
of  the  Latin  Church  of  Peter,  and  was  enthroned  beside 
the  Tiber  ; he  presided  over  fewer  Christians  than  those 
who  looked  up  to  the  head  of  the  Asiatic  Church  of  Thomas. 
Even  in  China  itself  there  were  again  bishops  at  most  of 
the  provincial  capitals,  and  a governor  was  found  to  devote 
much  of  his  wealth  to  the  furtherance  of  Christianity. 

If  these  details  come  from  Europeans,  hear  an  Asiatic  tell 
his  own  story,  written  in  1330  a.d.,  and  perhaps  not  even 
yet  accessible  in  our  language.  Two  Tatars,  called  Mark 
and  Bar-Suma,  sons  of  Church  dignitaries  at  Pekin  and 
another  great  Chinese  city,  became  monks,  and  after 
some  years  decided  to  go  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 
The  Tatar  emperor  therefore  appointed  them  his  am- 
bassadors to  the  European  rulers.  They  reached  the 
head  waters  of  the  Euphrates,  and  paid  their  respects  to 
the  Patriarch,  who  had  recently  removed  thither  from 


46 


Failure  in  Asia 


Baghdad.  He  consecrated  Mark  as  Metropolitan  of 
Cathay,  the  other  as  Visitor- General.  Wars  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood prevented  their  farther  progress,  and  they 
went  into  hermitages  for  two  years.  On  the  death  of 
the  Patriarch,  the  clergy  thought  it  a clear  sign  of  God’s 
will  that  now  they  were  under  Tatar  rule,  a Tatar  Christian 
high  in  favour  with  the  Tatar  emperor  should  be  at  hand, 
and  they  chose  Mark  to  be  Patriarch  of  the  whole  Asiatic 
Church.  The  local  Tatar  viceroy  installed  him,  and 
he  was  enthroned  in  1281  a.d.,  by  twenty-four  bishops, 
obtaining  a royal  grant  of  thirty  thousand  dinars  yearly 
to  build  new  churches. 

The  next  Tatar  viceroy  on  the  Euphrates  was  an 
apostate  from  Christianity,  but  his  career  was  short. 
His  successor  was  distinctly  favourable,  and  proposed 
to  ally  with  the  kings  of  western  Europe  to  crush  Islam, 
so  he  appointed  Bar-Suma  as  his  ambassador.  The 
accounts  of  Constantinople  and  Eome,  the  intrigues 
which  he  witnessed  actually  in  the  conclave  at  the  election 
of  a Pope,  his  interviews  with  King  Louis  at  Paris,  and 
with  our  own  king,  Edward  i.,  are  most  singular  reading 
for  us.  And  this  journey  may  remind  us  that  Edward 
really  was  a crusader,  and  did  attack  the  Muslims  in 
Palestine.  But  the  great  scheme  miscarried ; and  after 
a civil  war  among  the  Tatars,  the  Mushms  obtained  the 
ascendency  and  vowed  to  exterminate  Christianity  at 
its  very  headquarters  in  Asia.  They  did  destroy  the  great 
cathedrals : they  captured  the  Patriarch  and  hung  him 
upside  down  ; and  though  the  Tatar  king  rescued  him, 


Naturalise  ! 


47 


he  felt  it  politic  to  allow  his  more  turbulent  subjects, 
the  Muslims,  to  do  nearly  what  they  liked.  So  the 
closing  years  of  the  Patriarch  were  saddened  by  con- 
stant tales  of  massacre  and  destruction,  not  compen- 
sated by  the  recollection  that  in  his  thirty-six  years 
of  office  he  had  consecrated  seventy-five  metropolitans 
and  bishops. 

The  story  of  his  life  reveals  one  fatal  weakness  about 
the  Asiatic  Church ; it  persistently  adhered  to  the  use  of 
the  Syriac  tongue,  which  as  a spoken  language  was  ob- 
solete except  just  where  Tigris  and  Euphrates  took  their 
rise.  This  Tatar  of  Pekin  was  baptized  not  by  any 
Tatar  name,  but  as  Mark;  and  when  enthroned  as  Patriarch 
even  that  name  was  not  judged  Syriac  enough,  so  that 
he  was  styled  Yabh-Alaha.  And  hence  the  Church  ap- 
peared everywhere  as  a foreign  institution,  instead  of 
naturalisiug  itself  in  every  land.  We  may  not  blame 
them  with  a clear  conscience,  for  stiU  there  are  pious 
missionary  patriots  who  teach  Marathi  children  to  sing 
the  hymns  of  Kay  Palmer  in  English  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  an  American  organ ; but  the  sequel  in  China 
warns  that  this  course  courts  disaster.  The  Chinese 
have  always  been  intensely  patriotic,  and  at  this  very 
time  were  sensitive  about  their  language  and  their  writing  ; 
when  even  the  Muslims  proposed  to  use  a modified  Syriac 
alphabet,  they  declined  to  abandon  their  complicated 
syllabary  in  its  favour. 

And  now  there  appeared  two  enemies  to  the  Asiatic 
Church  in  China.  From  the  Far  West  came  a Flemish 


48 


Failure  in  Asia 


monk  who  was  amazed  at  finding  Christians  caring  nothing 
for  the  chair  of  Peter,  and  venerating  the  throne  of  Thomas. 
He  set  himself  to  scan  their  doings  with  hostile  eyes, 
and  at  once  noted  this  foreign  trait — indeed,  exaggerated 
it  to  say  that  all  the  clergy  chanted  in  a tongue  they 
did  not  comprehend.  Strange  to  say,  he  did  not  ask 
whether  the  Latin  of  western  Europe  was  understood 
by  all  the  French,  Dutch,  English,  and  Scandinavian 
clergy  ; but  his  criticism  was  just. 

Then  arose  a new  emperor  who  invited  to  court  repre- 
sentatives of  all  the  leading  religions,  that  he  might  select 
one  for  his  patronage.  At  first  he  asked  them  alternately 
to  bless  his  food ; but  the  Europeans  saw  fit  to  urge  the 
claims  of  their  Italian  Pope,  and  also  to  depreciate  the 
ancient  Christianity  of  the  country.  Certainly  they 
were  expelled,  but  the  tide  was  turning.  One  Mongol 
emperor  suppressed  the  bureau  of  religions,  another  sup- 
pressed several  dioceses,  and  after  1368  a.d.  the  curtain 
falls  on  a vanishing  cause.  For  the  Christians  had  thrown 
in  their  lot  too  closely  with  the  Mongol  dynasty,  hated 
by  the  Chinese.  And  when  a successful  revolt  drove 
out  the  tyrants,  it  brought  to  the  throne  an  ex-priest, 
who  naturally  showed  Christians  no  favour. 

Was,  then,  the  long  effort  in  China  fruitless  ? was  the 
failure  as  complete  as  in  India  ? Yes,  and  with  the  same 
qualified  gain.  For  if  a native  Church  surviving  from 
the  fourteenth  century  is  vainly  sought,  there  has  been 
a strange  transformation  and  purifying  of  a native  cult. 
Modern  Taoism,  says  Dr.  Timothy  Kichard,  is  not  the 


Extirpated  by  Force 


49 


ancient ; and  all  the  novel  features  are  distinctly  due  to 
Christian  influence  ! How  this  came  to  pass  has  not  been 
adequately  explored,  and  it  is  only  a conjecture  of  the 
Baptist  scholar  that  is  set  forth  in  the  Shanghai  Hand- 
book of  Missions.  But  we  should  indeed  marvel  if  a 
Church  so  deeply  rooted  throughout  the  empire  had  been 
utterly  extirpated ; and  when  modern  observers  call  our 
attention  to  its  traces  in  a rejuvenated  Taoism,  we  ought 
to  ask  whether  here  is  an  ancient  foundation  fit  to  bear 
a modern  superstructure,  and  to  save  some  trouble  in 
beginning  afresh. 

If  the  Chinese  expelled  Christianity  with  the  Mongols, 
we  might  at  least  hope  that  the  Mongols  in  Mongoha 
would  retain  and  extend  it.  But  those  were  the  days  of 
Timur,  who  from  his  capital  of  Samarcand  ravaged  im- 
partially in  all  directions,  destroying  whole  cities  and 
raising  grisly  pyramids  with  thousands  of  skulls.  So  far 
as  he  had  a preference  for  any  religion,  it  was  Islam ; but 
this  did  not  hinder  him  from  destroying  Baghdad,  and 
massacring  every  one  of  its  eight  hundred  thousand  inhabi- 
tants. This  was  also  the  centre  of  Asiatic  Christianity ; 
the  blow  to  our  cause  was  as  if  in  Europe  Rome  was  laid 
waste.  Pope  and  cardinals  all  slain,  while  every  other  town 
of  importance  had  suffered  in  hke  fashion.  When  Timur 
passed  away  in  1405  a.d.,  Persian  Christianity  was  extinct 
as  a vital  force,  although  in  the  extreme  north-west  around 
the  town  of  Urumiah,  supposed  to  be  the  birthplace  of 
Zoroaster,  still  cluster  a few  thousand  adherents  of  the 
once  great  Patriarch  of  Babylon.  Two  strange  legacies 
5 


50 


Failure  in  Asia 


his  Church  has  left  in  outward  things  : its  hierarchical 
organisation  and  its  ritual.  Whether  or  no  the  Taoists 
inherit  these,  it  is  certain  that  they  were  imitated  by  the 
Northern  Buddhists,  and  were  introduced  with  Chinese 
exactitude  into  Tibet,  to  puzzle  European  visitors  at  a 
later  date. 

Thus  rose  and  feU  Asiatic  Christianity.  When  Francis 
Xavier  passed  Socotra  he  found  it  dying  there,  and  its 
mummy  was  yet  seen  in  1650  a.d.  by  Vincenzo  the  Car- 
melite. The  antiquary  may  still  behold  a fossilised 
Church  in  South  India.  But  speaking  broadly,  there  has 
been  a fourfold  failure.  Christianity  measured  itself 
against  four  older  religions,  of  which  one  never  yielded  to 
persuasion,  and  three  yet  survive  in  dogged  strength. 
Confucians,  Buddhists,  Jews,  hold  in  calm  superiority  to 
their  sacred  books,  older  than  the  Christian,  and  in  Oriental 
disdain  announce  that  we  have  been  weighed  in  the  balance 
and  found  wanting.  What  pleasure  is  it  for  us  to  point 
out  that  the  Confucian  is  not  content  with  his  own  system, 
that  the  Buddhist  has  borrowed  a Christian  hierarchy,  that 
the  ancient  books  of  the  Brahman  are  neglected  for  legends 
and  doctrines  tinctured  with  Christianity  ? The  Buddhist 
smilingly  rejoins  that  Gotama  has  been  canonised  as  a 
Christian  saint ; the  Brahman  disdainfully  points  to  the 
Indian  beast-fables,  which  were  tagged  with  good  morals 
and  became  more  popular  in  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages  than  the  Bible  itself  ; and  the  Jew  strikes  in  with  the 
reminder  that  his  Scriptures  have  been  appropriated 


Faulty  Preparation 


51 


wholesale  by  us.  Broadly,  the  Message  has  been  rejected 
throughout  Asia : and  if  it  is  to  be  accepted  now,  it  is  in 
face  of  the  added  difficulty  that  it  comes  afresh  with  the 
stamp  of  Europe  upon  the  gold  mined  in  Asia ; that  it 
comes  with  the  stigma  of  repeated  defeat,  not  with  the 
prestige  of  victory. 

If  we  try  to  account  for  this  huge  failure,  we  can  observe 
that  in  every  case  there  was  a strong,  reasoned,  organised 
opposition,  which  the  missionaries  do  not  seem  to  have 
taken  into  account ; a Paul  would  have  done  his  best  to 
appreciate  the  strong  points  of  each  faith,  and  the  weak- 
ness ; he  would  have  adapted  his  Gospel  to  the  needs  of 
each  people.  Then  we  may  note  the  want  of  organisation 
in  two  respects  : in  supplying  missionaries,  in  conducting 
the  campaign.  The  Christian  Church  was  essentially 
missionary ; Christ  gave  at  least  half  His  energy  to  the 
preparation  of  missionaries  for  their  work  ; and  His  latest 
words  emphasised  their  supreme  duty.  But  despite  all 
that  was  done  at  Edessa  and  Msibis,  we  cannot  trace  any 
systematic  attempt  to  maintain  a missionary  seminary, 
to  prepare  men  for  the  foreign  field,  to  collect  the  lessons 
from  success  or  failure.  Nor  do  we  see  any  clear  tokens  of 
missionary  strategy.  Paul  aimed  for  the  leading  towns, 
and  planted  in  each  a strong  church,  even  though  it  took 
him  two  or  three  years  to  establish  a centre  of  influence. 
He  preached  before  governors  and  kings  : what  a con- 
verted king  can  do  for  the  cause  we  have  seen  in  Armenia 
and  elsewhere  ; what  a missionary  king  did  for  Buddhism 
was  to  spread  it  from  a tiny  principality  over  half  a 


52 


Failure  in  Asia 


continent.  And  above  all,  few  learned  the  Pauline  lesson, 
to  be  all  things  to  all  men.  In  Syria  this  was  indeed 
done,  and  Syriac  Christianity  is  the  only  type  that  survives 
in  Asia ; but  Syriac  Christianity  never  became  really 
Persian  or  Indian  or  Chinese  ; to  the  Hindu  the  noissionary 
could  not  become  a Hindu,  and  he  won  practically  no 
Hindus. 

If  the  failure  of  the  past  is  to  be  retrieved  in  these 
lands,  the  historic  faith  must  be  stripped  of  much  of 
its  Western  accretions.  Not  the  gorgeous  ceremonial 
of  Home  with  the  creed  of  Pope  Pius  iv. ; not  the 
XXXIX.  Articles  and  the  Canons  of  1603  and  the 
Prayer-book  of  Charles  ii. ; not  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession and  Catechisms ; not  John  Wesley’s  Sermons  and 
the  discipline  of  Methodism;  but  only  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  all  its  God-given  simplicity  must  be  presented, 
that  it  may  be  read  afresh  as  the  Oriental  may  be  guided 
by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  not  by  the  Occidental.  Our 
schemes  of  government  are  not  his,  and  there  may  be 
methods  of  Church  management  that  are  both  familiar  to 
him  and  in  accord  with  the  mind  of  Christ.  And  above 
all,  the  pure  morality  of  Christ,  as  distinct  from  the 
practice  of  Western  Christians,  wiU  receive  a ready 
welcome  from  the  students  of  what  the  Buddha  or  Con- 
fucius taught.  Only  whereas  they  centred  attention  on 
behaviour,  on  the  salvation  of  self,  Christ  points  the 
sinner,  heart-broken  by  failure,  to  God,  the  loving  Father 
and  Saviour,  and  bids  us  spend  ourselves  in  the  service 
of  others. 


Kesurgam 


53 


If  we  should  plead  our  hearts’  consuming  pain 
At  sight  of  ruined  altars,  prophets  slain. 

And  God’s  own  ark  with  blood  of  souls  defiled : 
He  on  the  rock  may  bid  us  stand,  and  see 
The  outskirts  of  His  march  of  mystery. 

His  endless  warfare  with  man’s  wilful  heart. 

Go,  to  the  world  return,  nor  fear  to  cast 
Thy  bread  upon  the  waters,  sure  at  last 
In  joy  to  find  it  after  many  days. 

The  work  be  thine,  the  fruit  thy  children’s  part : 
Choose  to  believe,  not  see;  sight  tempts  the  heart 
From  sober  walking  in  true  Gospel  ways. 


Keble. 


SUCCESS  IN  EUROPE 


I am  debtor  both  to  Greeks  and  to  Barbarians. 

I am  ready  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  you  also  that  are  in  Rome. 
I have  finished  the  eourse. 


Paul, 


II 


Success  in  Europe 

rE  story  of  Ckristianity  in  Asia  is  one  to  sadden 
every  Ckristian,  for  five  hundred  years  ago  it 
showed  complete  failure ; whereas  in  Europe  until 
the  same  period  we  have  to  study  success,  hardly  broken, 
and  finally  complete.  In  Asia  there  were  great  organised 
rehgions  to  encounter,  which  with  modifications  remain 
victorious  ; in  Europe  there  was  no  religion  with  any 
vitality  in  it,  and  though  certain  relics  remain,  they 
are  chiefly  in  customs  whose  origin  is  forgotten  by  those 
who  practise  them,  and  which  do  not  distract  from  the 
Saviour.  In  Asia  the  peoples  who  have  proved  so  tenacious 
of  their  ancient  faiths  were  mainly  Turanian,  with  a few 
Arians  and  Semites  in  the  south-west ; in  Europe  the 
impressionable  peoples  who  adopted  Christianity  were 
mainly  Arians,  with  a few  outlying  Turanians. 

The  story  of  Christianity  in  Europe  is  well  known,  at 
least  in  its  early  stages,  and  is  probably  more  interesting 
than  its  fate  in  Asia  ; hut  the  missionary  problems  it 
presents  have  seldom  been  disengaged  and  studied.  The 
matters  that  fill  many  histories  are  the  conquest  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  the  evolution  of  a system  of  Greek  thought, 

57 


58 


Success  in  Europe 


the  erection  of  a Latin  governmental  hierarchy,  the  elabor- 
ation of  a pagan- Jewish  sacerdotal  cult ; only  a few,  hke 
Dobschiitz,  realise  that  even  in  organised  Christianity 
the  main  thing  is  the  quahty  of  the  Christian  life.  Our 
theme,  however,  is  different ; we  are  concerned  not  with 
the  development  of  Christianity  in  any  one  land,  but 
with  the  story  of  its  frontier  line,  wherever  that  went. 
And  in  noting  the  spread  of  Christianity  over  Europe  we 
shall  meet  such  problems  as  the  tactics  adopted  toward 
heathen  customs,  opposition  or  assimilation  ; the  methods 
of  persuasion  or  force  ; the  organisation  of  the  missionary 
army. 

To  Europe,  as  we  understand  the  term,  is  to  be  added 
for  our  purpose  the  Anatohan  peninsula.  So  thoroughly 
was  this  Hellenised  before  the  Christian  era  that  it  has 
generally  since  been  bound  up  with  Europe,  and  the 
holder  of  Constantinople  has  often  ruled  on  either  side  of 
the  Bosphorus. 

We  can  group  the  facts,  numerous  as  they  are,  into 
three  sections  : — 

1.  The  Greek  world,  and  the  contact  with  philosophy. 

2.  The  Roman  world,  and  the  contact  with  order  and 
officiahsm. 

3.  The  uncivilised  tribes : Keltic,  Teutonic,  and 
Slavonic. 

When  a word  is  added  as  to  stemming  the  Muslim 
invasion  in  Spain,  Hungary,  and  Russia,  we  come  to  1500 
A.D.,  when  practically  the  whole  of  Europe  was  covered 
with  nominal  Christians. 


Jewish  Preparation 


59 


1.  The  Greek  World  : Contact  with  Philosophy 

’Twas  the  hour  when  One  in  Si6n 
Himg  for  love’s  sake  on  a cross — 

When  His  brow  was  chill  with  dying. 

And  His  soul  was  faint  with  loss ; 

When  His  priestly  blood  dropped  downward. 

And  His  kingly  eyes  looked  throneward — 

Then,  Pan  was  dead. 

By  the  love  He  stood  alone  in. 

His  sole  Godhead  stood  complete ; 

And  the  false  gods  fell  down  moaning. 

Each  from  off  his  golden  seat, — 

All  the  false  gods  with  a cry 
Rendered  up  their  deity — 

Pan,  Pan  was  dead. 

E.  B.  Browning. 

Palestine  was  a bilingual  country,  where  the  Aramaic 
of  the  East  met  the  Greek  of  the  West,  and  where  the 
ofl&cial  Latin  claimed,  but  hardly  obtained,  a place. 
Similarly,  round  Delhi  to-day  the  Hindi  of  the  native  and 
the  Urdu  of  the  Muslim  contend,  while  English  demands 
official  recognition.  We  have  seen  how  in  Aramaic 
guise  the  Gospel  once  spread  over  much  of  Asia,  next 
comes  for  our  attention  the  spread  in  Greek  form  over  all 
the  lands  tinctured  with  Hellenism,  as  far  as  Rome  and 
Lyons. 

The  Jews  had  prepared  the  way  to  the  West,  as  to  the 
East.  As  slaves,  as  colonists,  as  merchants,  they  had 
settled  in  many  leading  towns  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
and  wherever  they  went  they  gathered  into  little  com- 
panies which  met  Sabbath  by  Sabbath.  And  whereas  in 


60 


Success  in  Europe 


the  East  there  was  a reluctance  to  write  down  a version 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  Alexandrian  Jews  had  broken  down 
this  conservatisih,  and  Greek  versions  were  in  general 
use,  not  only  of  the  canonical  books,  but  of  other  rehgious 
literature.  The  early  Christian  writings,  except  for  the 
original  Aramaic  Logia  of  Matthew,  were  all  in  Greek. 
The  early  missionaries  were  subjects  of  Kome,  if  not 
citizens,  and,  forgetting  their  Jewish  origin,  they  showed 
themselves  true  patriots  with  imperial  tendencies ; they 
set  to  work  to  evangelise  their  own  empire. 

In  every  synagogue  there  was  room  found  for  attentive 
hearers,  just  as  we  open  our  churches  not  to  members  only, 
but  to  all  who  choose  to  listen,  especially  if  they  are  willing 
to  contribute  to  the  expense.  So  the  earhest  missionaries 
dehberately  addressed  themselves  not  only  to  the  men  of 
Israel,  but  also  to  those  who  feared  God  outside  Israel. 
Again  and  again  Paul  attracted  these  Gentile  weU-wishers, 
swept  them  into  his  net,  drew  them  out  and  estabhshed 
a new  meeting  in  the  same  town.  His  proceedings  natur- 
ally exasperated  the  Jews  to  the  last  degree  ; but  we  must 
recoUect  that  Paul’s  work  among  the  Jews  was  quite  a 
side  issue — ^he  was  dehberately  told  to  leave  them  alone 
and  go  to  the  Greeks.  And  in  this  task  he  showed  the 
strategy  of  a statesman.  In  a score  of  years  he  had 
founded  churches  at  Tarsus,  Pisidian  Antioch,  Ephesus, 
Thessalonica,  and  Corinth,  besides  lesser  towns  ; and  he 
had  a great  share  in  building  up  Chxorches  at  Antioch 
and  Kome.  Thus  on  the  high  roads  to  the  capital  he 
personally  ensured  that  every  provincial  capital  had  a 


Christianity  becomes  Greek 


61 


Christian  Church  to  kindle  the  province.  Granted  that  as 
a Tarsian  he  naturally  was  drawn  to  Anatolia,  yet  it  was 
full  of  promise  that  this  great  peninsula  was  so  early 
occupied  for  Christ.  Others  followed  up  his  work,  and 
Ephesus  became  the  metropolis  of  Christianity  for  one 
himdred  and  fifty  years,  and  held  its  own  till  the  Goths 
destroyed  the  city  in  262  a.d.  As  for  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, they  found  their  tradition  snapped  by  the  two  great 
rebellions  of  66  a.d.  and  135  a.d.,  and  the  new  religion 
passed  promptly  into  a Greek  phase,  so  far  as  the  West 
was  concerned. 

The  Greek  Christians  took  over  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  from  their  philosophical  schools,  as  imitated 
by  Philo  the  Jew,  came  the  habit  of  allegorising  whatever 
was  not  convenient  to  obey,  while  the  Prophets  were 
ransacked  to  discover  foreshadowings  of  Jesus  as  the 
Christ.  The  result  was  that  the  Jews  ceased  to  influence 
Hellenist  thought ; that  the  synagogues  were  deserted 
by  Gentiles ; and  that  every  Greek  in  search  of  religion 
attached  himself  loosely  to  some  Christian  gathering. 

The  presentation  of  truth  to  such  can  be  seen  in  the 
Book  of  Acts  : God  is  One,  deeply  concerned  in  us  and 
our  conduct ; He  wfll  send  a Judge,  who  has  already  come 
as  Saviour ; this  judge  is  Jesus,  and  the  proof  of  His  mission 
is  the  Resurrection.  The  good  news  was  of  salvation  to 
body  and  soul,  and  the  duty  of  every  Church  was  made 
plain,  to  tend  its  own  poor  and  sick,  and  to  foster  brotherly 
relations  with  every  other  Church.  Enormous  emphasis 
was  thrown  on  decent  life,  and  explicit  teaching  was  given 


62 


Success  in  Europe 


as  to  vice  and  virtue,  in  some  respects  contradicting  the 
current  Greek  ideal  of  ethics.  On  idolatry  war  was  declared ; 
and  the  attack  long  begun  by  philosophers  was  pushed 
home  with  the  bluntest  of  speech  as  to  the  character  of 
the  Greek  gods,  moral  and  intellectual.  Aristides  even 
presented  to  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  a sweeping 
indictment  of  them  as  adulterers  and  murderers  and 
thieves,  whose  worship  must  demoralise  their  votaries. 

The  skirmish  line  of  attack  consisted  of  penniless  mission- 
aries, who  deliberately  travelled  in  order  to  preach.  They 
supported  themselves  like  Paul,  or  accepted  support  like 
Barnabas  and  Peter,  but  seldom  stayed  in  one  place  once 
they  had  organised  a community ; they  may  be  compared 
to  the  backwoodsmen  of  Virginia  in  the  days  of  old  Vin- 
cennes, of  Boone  and  Kogers  Clark,  restless  in  a settled 
society,  and  eager  to  push  back  the  frontier  of  civilisation. 
After  the  missionaries  arose  the  teachers,  resident  and 
paid,  in  many  respects  like  the  professional  heathen 
teachers  : Justin,  Tatian,  Clement,  and  Origen  are  excellent 
examples.  Behind  them  rose  up  the  organising  local 
officers,  part  of  whose  business  was  to  see  that  the  ordinary 
member  did  his  share  in  propagating  the  Gospel.  Paul 
urged  every  man  to  continue  in  his  former  occupation  ; 
for  so  he  could  exert  the  best  influence,  his  changed  life 
witnessing  to  his  associates  the  new  power  that  had  entered 
him. 

The  organisation  of  the  Greek  converts  deserves  special 
attention.  All  Jewish  precedent  suggested  that  Jewish 
converts  should  form  one  great  community,  ruled  from 


Organise  on  Civil  Pattern 


63 


I Jerusalem  ; and  in  the  Jewish  stage  we  do  actually  read  of 
the  Church  in  Judea  and  Gahlee  and  Samaria.  But  Greeks 
organised  by  cities,  and  the  Greek  converts  naturally  did 
, the  same,  taking  over  even  the  technical  Greek  word 
“ Ecclesia.”  One  city,  one  Church  ; such  was  the  Greek 
custom.  And  whereas  Jews  managed  everything  by  one 
committee  of  elders,  the  Greeks  soon  differentiated  the 
committee  into  two  groups,  and  evolved  a single  head, 
on  the  lines  of  their  civil  hfe.  Paul,  however,  knew  the 
Greek  tendency  to  disintegration  and  local  independence, 
and  set  his  face  sternly  against  it.  His  letters  to  Corinth 
smartly  rebuke  this,  and  urge  co-operation,  consideration 
of  others,  submission  to  the  general  customs.  Before  long 
this  worked  out  on  the  famihar  political  hnes,  and  the 
Greek  city  churches  conferred  together  in  synods,  as 
Augustus  had  taught  the  cities  of  a province  to  send  their 
representatives  for  the  yearly  worship  and  business.  And 
thus  the  pattern  evolved  by  360  a.d.  is  due  to  adopting  for 
religious  business  the  forms  familiar  in  pohtical  business  ; 
local  self-government  on  the  municipal  pattern,  provincial 
co-operation  on  the  federal  pattern.  The  Greek  Churches 
still  hold  to  that  pattern,  for  in  every  independent  State 
is  to  be  found  an  independent  Church,  as  in  Greece,  Bul- 
garia, Servia,  Roumania,  Russia,  etc.  And  the  Anglican 
communion  also  adopts  the  same  plan ; all  the  congrega- 
tions in  Scotland,  all  in  America,  all  in  Canada,  all  in 
Austraha  leaguing  into  local  Churches,  each  technically 
complete,  yet  fraternising  with  the  others.  When  we 
observe  the  general  principle  involved,  that  organisation 


64 


Success  in  Europe 


is  to  be  on  familiar  lines,  we  see  one  reason  why  Westerners 
have  made  no  wonderful  progress  in  modern  attempts 
to  win  Asiatics  and  Africans  for  Christ. 

It  was  in  this  Greek  phase  that  the  question  first  arose 
as  to  the  relation  of  the  Churches  to  the  missionaries. 
Paul  himself  found  a decided  disposition  to  question  his 
authority,  and  Corinth  seems  to  have  flouted  him  at  times. 
Then  he  tried  the  experiment  of  detaching  aides-de-camp 
like  Luke,  Timothy,  Tychicus,  Titus,  vested  with  his 
authority ; and  we  find  Ephesus  declining  to  recognise 
the  delegate,  so  that  Timothy  was  recalled  from  the  scene 
of  his  failure.  A generation  later  Diotrephes  brought 
matters  to  a crisis  in  one  congregation,  refused  to  give  a 
hearing  to  the  messengers  of  John,  and  expelled  those 
who  sympathised  with  them.  In  one  aspect  this  was 
officialism  resisting  the  spiritually  gifted  members ; in 
another  it  was  a self-contained  Church  refusing  any  status 
to  missionaries,  and  sending  them  on  to  preach  to  the 
unconverted.  Thus  early  emerged  the  question,  which  in 
the  East  was  solved  by  withdrawal  of  the  missionaries  and 
the  formation  of  national  Churches ; which  Rome  settled 
for  awhile  in  the  West  by  the  claim  to  rule  everywhere 
through  her  missionaries  ; which  the  Methodists  settled  by 
the  missionaries  appropriating  aU  the  power  of  any  import- 
ance ; which  is  arising  again  by  the  formation  of  a National 
Missionary  Society  of  India,  or  the  consolidation  of  the 
Japanese  Churches  without  regard  to  the  nationality  of 
those  who  brought  them  the  Gospel.  The  experience  of 
revolts  against  Rome  and  Wesleyan  Methodism  seems  to 


Resistance  of  Philosophers 


65 


prove  the  wisdom  of  the  Greek  settlement,  and  to  show 
that  the  missionaries  should  watch  for  the  signs  of  readi- 
ness in  their  converts  to  assume  all  responsibility,  and  then 
gradually  transfer  their  energies  to  fresh  fields. 

The  opposition  to  the  missionary  efiorts  was  of  various 
kinds,  philosophical  and  political,  but  in  the  Greek  world 
hardly  religious.  Greek  religion  was  rotten,  except  in 
so  far  as  there  was  a revival  in  the  mysteries.  These 
were  strong,  and  the  sacramental  doctrine  they  taught 
was  only  overcome  by  being  appropriated.  Christians 
came  to  believe  that  the  due  performance  of  ceremonial 
was  the  channel  of  blessing  ; that  baptism  actually  washed 
away  sin  as  surely  as  did  the  sea-bath  of  Eleusis ; that 
the  Lord’s  Supper  actually  nourished  the  soul  with  Divine 
strength.  There  was  another  case  of  stooping  to  conquer, 
as  the  Brahmans  did  with  the  Buddhists ; for  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus  debased  his  work  by  adopting  the  super- 
stitions of  Anatolia,  and  set  a fashion  which  has  been 
aU  too  widely  followed. 

The  philosophical  opposition  was  long  in  maturing. 
Early  Christians  were  ignored  as  beneath  notice,  but  at 
last  they  were  found  to  be  a real  force.  Celsus  drew 
attention  to  what  is  still  a stumbling-block,  the  number 
of  rival  sects ; he  urged  that  current  Christianity  was  not 
the  primitive  teaching  of  Jesus,  and  asked  what  was 
essential — an  inquiry  that  deserves  much  more  serious 
consideration,  especially  by  missionaries,  than  it  has 
yet  received ; not  appreciating  the  importance  of  the 
promise  that  the  Holy  Spirit  should  guide  the  apostles 
6 


66 


Success  in  Europe 


into  all  the  truth,  he  went  so  far  as  to  insinuate  that 
they  had  adulterated  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Christ. 
Seventy  years  elapsed  before  a reply  was  forthcoming 
from  Origen,  and  in  less  than  half  that  time  the  attack 
was  renewed  by  Porphyry  in  an  elaborate  treatise.  He 
charged  that  the  Scriptures  were  misused,  and  that  the 
doctrines  of  Creation,  Judgement,  and  the  Eesurrection 
were  untenable.  Four  Christians  answered  him,  but  the 
most  efiectual  response  was  when  Christians  became 
dominant  and  destroyed  his  book.  Nor  did  philosophy 
prove  merely  critical ; it  was  able  to  present  a counter 
scheme,  Neo-Platonism,  which  spiritualised  the  old 
natural  rehgion,  allegorised  the  myths,  and  orientahsed  the 
Greek  polytheism  into  pantheism.  This  also  was  crushed 
rather  than  answered ; after  the  days  when  Church  and 
State  coalesced,  the  Alexandrians  could  murder  Hypatia, 
but  they  could  not  refute  her,  for  the  bishop  had  suppressed 
the  great  teachers  of  an  earlier  age. 

But  first  the  State  had  measured  itself  with  Christianity. 
As  early  as  the  days  of  Peter  the  principle  was  announced 
that  Christianity  was  illegal ; but  no  general  conflict  arose 
till  Decius  gave  the  simple  alternative,  “Kecant  or  die.” 
Foreign  affairs  drew  off  the  attention  ; but  Maximin  Daza 
went  farther  next  time,  created  an  atmosphere  unfavour- 
able to  Christianity  in  the  schools,  procmed  treatises 
against  it,  and  condescended  to  copy  the  organisation, 
erecting  a pagan  hierarchy  of  priests.  AH  failed,  and 
Constantine  saw  the  need  of  coming  to  terms  with  Greek 
Christianity ; he  shifted  his  capital  into  the  Greek  pro- 


Greeks  seek  Wisdom 


67 


vinces,  and  tried  to  patch,  up  a peace  between  the  halves 
of  the  largest  sect,  concentrating  his  persecution  on  the 
other  sects.  This  step  marks  the  acknowledged  success 
of  the  mission  among  the  Greeks  ; and  Harnack  sums  up 
that,  even  before  Constantine  set  the  State  imprimatur 
on  it,  Christianity  was  the  standard  rehgion  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Thrace,  and  was  of  weight  in  Syria,  Cyprus,  and  the 
Greek  coast.  He  estimates  that  about  eight  hundred 
bishops  could  be  mustered  in  the  East. 

What,  then,  was  the  reaction  of  the  Greek  world  on 
Christianity  ? For  success  has  to  be  paid  for,  and  the 
Greek  Christianity  that  now  held  the  field  was  another 
thing  from  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles. 

The  emphasis  was  shifted  from  conduct  to  creed,  and 
the  whole  tone  of  the  morality  had  sensibly  declined. 
This  had  not  come  to  pass  without  a struggle ; but  the 
Montanists  and  Novatians,  who  upheld  the  old  standard 
of  living,  found  that  Constantine  did  not  think  them  worth 
patronising,  and  he  continued  to  oppress  them : so  that 
the  dominant  sect  was  one  from  which  all  the  purest 
elements  had  been  filtered  off.  The  average  result  may 
be  guessed  when  we  know  that  even  the  bishops  at  Nicaea 
charged  one  another  with  crimes  which  Constantine  was 
pohtic  enough  to  ignore.  It  is  true  that  creed  must 
underhe  conduct ; but  it  must  be  a creed  that  commands 
the  assent  of  the  will  as  well  as  the  intellect. 

The  Greeks  were  dialecticians,  and  they  now  threw 
themselves  on  the  philosophy  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  just 
as  their  predecessors  had  attacked  cosmology,  and  as  their 


68 


Success  in  Europe 


inteUectual  heirs  in  Germany  and  elsewhere  have  rushed  at 
the  literary  dissection  of  the  Bible,  in  a spirit  that  has 
nothing  Christian  about  it.  Every  council  led  to  an  exclu- 
sion or  suppression  of  the  minority,  and  though  there  were 
sects  enough  before  Constantine,  the  next  few  centuries 
saw  the  rise  of  Arians  and  Nestorians  and  Eutychians 
and  Monotheletes,  further  to  split  the  Greek  world.  While 
the  main  body  chose  to  define  its  position  merely  by 
contradicting  all  these,  and  while  the  formula  of  Chalcedon 
was  dictated  by  and  accepted  in  the  Eoman  world,  yet 
we  must  not  forget  that  all  this  thought  is  cast  into 
Greek  moulds.  We,  it  is  true,  have  been  trained  on  the 
ancient  Greek  classics,  and  therefore  can  appreciate  and 
adopt  these  Greek  Christian  definitions ; but  the  thought 
of  Asia  is  not  affected  by  Greek  philosophy,  and  it  may 
well  be  necessary  that  the  great  truths  as  to  our  Lord’s 
Person  must  be  fused  afresh  and  assume  quite  other 
forms  to  be  valued  or  even  comprehended  aright  by 
Chinese  or  Hindus. 

Again,  Christianity  became  polytheistic  ; for  such  is  the 
real  meaning  of  saint-worship.  This  began  with  com- 
memoration of  the  martyrs,  hymns  in  their  praise,  the 
reading  of  the  story  of  their  martyrdom,  an  oration  in 
their  honour,  and  the  old  feast  of  the  ancestors  slightly 
transformed,  sometimes  even  with  dances  and  pantomimes 
to  conclude  with.  Then  came  in  speedily  the  practice 
of  invoking  the  help  of  the  saints.  And  before  long  it 
was  hard  to  distinguish  the  crowd  of  saints,  with  God 
in  their  midst,  from  the  former  Greek  pantheon,  with  Zeus 


An  Evil  Eoot  Defiles 


69 


over  all.  As  an  instance  of  this  Christianised  paganism, 
take  the  worship  of  Demeter,  the  Latin  Bona  Dea,  at 
Catania  in  Sicily.  Twice  yearly,  at  the  Greater  and 
Less  Elensinia,  was  her  festival  held.  A horse-race  was 
followed  by  a procession,  when  with  torches  and  bells 
the  statue  of  the  goddess  was  escorted,  her  veil  was  shown, 
and  her  fertile  breasts.  To-day  exactly  the  same  cere- 
monial is  enacted  at  the  same  time,  in  honour  of  Saint 
Agatha,  whose  name  is  simply  the  Greek  version  of  Bona. 

With  polytheism  naturally  came  idolatry.  The  bones 
of  the  martyrs  and  the  wood  of  the  true  cross  were  revered 
everywhere.  Then  followed  pictures  of  the  saints,  and 
although  the  Greeks  did  draw  the  line  deliberately  and 
emphatically  at  statues,  yet  Muhammad  contemptuously 
brushed  away  the  refinement,  and  termed  them  plainly 
idolaters. 

Add  to  this  the  sacramentalism  taken  over  from  the 
Mysteries,  and  the  sacerdotalism  which,  if  defended  from 
the  Old  Testament,  was  yet  founded  on  and  carried  over 
from  Greek  ideas,  and  we  see  that  the  contribution  of 
Hellenism  to  Western  Christianity  was  indeed  great. 

For  the  missionary  it  is  aU  important  to  recollect  that 
these  accretions  are  not  essential  to  Christianity.  To 
primitive  Christianity  they  were  unknown,  if  indeed  not 
alien.  To  Asiatic  Christianity  they  never  found  an 
entrance  to  any  extent,  a fact  generally  neglected  by 
those  who  bid  us  study  the  actual  development.  What- 
ever may  be  said  about  progress  among  the  Arians,  it 
is  needful  to  remind  the  workers  among  Semitic  and 


70 


Success  in  Europe 


Turanian  races  that  it  is  not  their  business  to  transplant 
the  Arian  shrub,  but  to  plant  the  Gospel  seed. 

2.  The  Roman  World  : Order  and  Oepicialism 

I see  better  things  and  approve  them ; 

But  I follow  the  worse. 

Horatitjs  Flacctjs. 

He  is  here,  whom  seers  in  old  time 
Chanted  of,  while  ages  ran ; 

Whom  the  faithful  word  of  prophets 
Promised  ere  the  world  began ; 

Long  foretold,  at  length  appearing : 

Praise  Him,  every  child  of  man. 

Aueeiius  Peudenttus. 

Christianity  reached  Rome  in  the  year  of  our  Lord’s 
Resurrection ; but  it  remained  of  the  Greek  type  for  many 
generations.  Such  a phenomenon  is  not  without  parallel 
to-day : the  Irish  may  have  an  important  society  in 
New  York,  but  it  may  conceivably  take  two  centuries 
before  this  society  can  forget  afiairs  in  Old  Ireland,  will 
attend  to  its  own  business,  falls  imder  American  control, 
and  becomes  thoroughly  naturalised. 

Even  in  Rome  the  Greek  tendency  to  faction  was  most 
marked.  When  the  tide  was  turning,  about  200  a.d.,  we 
find  the  same  state  of  things  that  was  shown  in  Paul’s 
letter  to  Rome — numberless  little  Churches  and  not  one 
united  body.  We  can  identify  a Montanist,  a Theodotian, 
a Modahst,  a Marcionite,  several  Gnostic  Churches, 
besides  the  Greek  Church  presided  over  by  Hippolytus, 
and  the  Latin  Church  under  Victor.  It  is  the  same 


Italy  Long  Pagan 


71 


spectacle  that  may  be  seen  in  many  an  American  or 
British  town  to-day.  But  the  Eoman  dynasty  which 
began  with  Victor  introduced  a new  state  of  afiairs,  and 
within  fifty  years  an  emperor  declared  he  woidd  as  soon 
see  another  emperor  beside  him  as  a bishop  at  Kome,  for 
members  of  the  patrician  Fabian  and  Cornehan  families 
were  now  filling  that  post.  Fifty  years  more  and  a 
disciphned  clergy  was  ministering  in  forty  pubhc  basilicas, 
with  the  whole  city  districted  out,  as  if  there  were  no  laws 
against  their  very  existence.  In  Church  circles  Roman  order 
and  officiahsm  had  triumphed,  and  the  dissenters  had  all  but 
vanished.  It  was  the  resurrection  of  the  aristocratic  republic, 
as  against  the  monarchy  and  as  against  the  democracy. 

But  how  did  Christianity  spread  itself  outside  the  one 
city  ? Gaul,  Spain,  Britain,  and  Italy  were  the  Latin  pro- 
vinces, besides  Africa,  which  must  be  considered  separately. 
Progress  in  Italy  was  slow  and  disappointing  : the  South  was 
stiU  Magna  Graecia,  and  Hellenic  Christianity  held  the  field  ; 
the  basin  of  the  Po  in  the  North  also  was  evangehsed  from 
Greece,  and  in  300  a.d.  there  were  no  Christians  in  a town 
as  large  as  Bologna;  while  Ravenna,  Milan,  and  Aquileiawere 
for  long  more  Greek  than  Latin.  In  Central  Italy  little  is 
heard  of  the  new  religion  ; the  historians  of  this  century 
write  as  if  outside  Rome  itself,  Christianity  was  almost 
neghgible  in  the  West ; and  such  prominent  men  as 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Hilary,  and  Jerome  were  permeated 
with  Greek  thought  rather  than  Latin.  The  intense 
concentration  at  Rome  evidently  weakened  all  effort  in 
the  neighbourhood,  exactly  as  the  attraction  of  London 


72 


Success  in  Europe 


kills  all  iadependent  town  life  for  forty  mUes  around.  As 
for  tke  country  districts,  tkey  were  frankly  abandoned  ; tbe 
name  “ pagan  ” shows  that  they  were  beyond  Ckristian 
efiort.  When  Benedict  of  Nursia  began  bis  work  after 
500  A.D.,  be  found  idolatry  still  practised  at  Monte  Cassino, 
not  a hundred  miles  from  Kome.  Progress  in  tbe  rural 
districts  was  both  slow  and  deceptive.  Tbe  result  after 
a thousand  years  is  depicted  in  these  unflattering  terms  ; 
“ Tbe  Italian  peasantry  were  a class  apart  from  tbe 
burghers,  as  they  were  nowhere  else.  Their  religion  was 
usually  a thinly  veiled  paganism,  a bebef  in  the  omni- 
presence of  spirits,  good  and  bad,  to  be  thanked,  pro- 
pitiated, coaxed,  or  compelled  by  use  of  charms,  amulets, 
spells,  and  ceremonies.  The  gods  of  their  pagan  ancestors 
had  been  replaced  by  local  saints,  and  received  the  same 
kind  of  worship.”  ^ 

In  Gaul,  again,  the  progress  was  slow.  Irenaeus  wrote  m 
Greek,  but  preached  in  Keltic,  which  suggests  that  among 
the  Latins  and  the  Romanised  Kelts  little  was  done  even 
in  the  south.  A century  later  there  were  only  twenty 
bishops  who  could  be  mustered  from,  all  Gaul.  Britain 
was  worse,  and  we  hear  only  of  one  native  and  two  Latin 
bishops.  Spain,  indeed,  which  had  been  diligently 
Romanised  by  Augustus,  produced  the  great  statesman 
and  bishop,  Hosius  ; by  his  efforts  the  south  was  well 
won,  but  at  the  cost  of  much  compromise  and  falling 
ofi  from  the  ideal  purity.  Along  the  military  frontier  of 
the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  we  find,  when  Constantine 
1 Lindsay,  Reformation,  vol.  ii.  p.  501. 


Mithraism 


73 


declared  for  Ckristianity,  only  four  or  five  feeble  cburcbes 
at  the  chief  posts. 

The  fact  is,  that  in  the  West  Christianity  met  with  a 
formidable  opposition  from  another  rehgion,  that  of  Mithra. 
This  was  an  importation  from  Persia,  which  itself  had  been 
transformed  on  its  Westward  journey.  Once  Mithra  had 
been  the  god  of  light  and  truth,  captain  of  the  hosts  of 
good ; Zoroaster  had  neglected  him  and  elevated  Ahura 
Mazda,  but  had  given  him  a tinge  of  redeeming  activity. 
In  Babylon  he  acquired  something  of  the  attributes  of 
Shamash  the  Sun  ; in  Anatoha  also  he  was  identified  with 
Helios  ; the  Greeks  gave  him  a human  form,  and  produced 
a group  of  statuary  showing  his  battle  with  the  bull,  which 
speedily  became  standard,  while  they  blended  their  stoic 
philosophy  with  the  old  Persian  creed.  Indeed,  under 
King  Mithradates  it  seemed  as  though  Mithra  might  be  the 
chief  god  of  those  parts,  but  the  successes  of  Pompey 
ended  that  phase.  The  garrisons  on  the  Eastern  frontier 
of  the  empire  became  deeply  leavened ; and  when,  after 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  some  of  them  were  transferred 
to  the  frontiers  in  Italy,  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Africa,  the 
worship  of  Mithra  at  once  became  important  in  those  parts. 
Christianity  was  weak  here  because  Mithraism  was  strong  ; 
at  every  fort  along  the  wall  between  Carhsle  and  Newcastle 
was  one  of  the  cave-temples,  while  York,  Caerleon,  and 
Chester  were  great  centres.  When  Diocletian  was  girding 
himself  for  his  struggle  with  Christianity,  he  and  his 
associates  excavated  for  Mithra  a stately  cavern  on  the 
Danube,  the  largest  temple  known. 


74 


Success  in  Europe 


Nor  was  this  a religion  for  soldiers  alone  ; Syrian  slaves 
and  traders  carried  it  to  Sicily,  and  up  the  Ehone  ; the 
junior  civil  servants  spread  it  in  the  Tyrol.  It  appealed 
to  many  classes  of  society ; the  Emperor  Commodus  was 
initiated,  and  ever  afterwards  a Mithra  chaplain  was 
maintained  in  the  imperial  household,  while  the  Roman 
aristocracy  took  up  his  worship  as  the  correct  thing.  The 
attraction  exercised  on  the  emperors  seems  due  to  the 
theology  justifying  the  deification  of  the  living  emperor, 
and  upholding  a doctrine  of  Divine  Right.  The  lower 
classes  were  conciliated  by  its  astrology  and  magic,  while 
another  large  section  was  fascinated  by  its  secret  ritual, 
its  passwords  and  degrees.  ' 

Its  inner  weakness  was  its  lack  of  culture  and  its  idolatry, 
untouched  by  the  Greek  spirit ; nor  had  it  any  message  for 
women  ; so,  when  the  barbarians  sacked  the  frontier  towns 
and  destroyed  the  temples,  the  crisis  came.  Christians 
believed  that  the  Mithra  priests  incited  Galerius  to  the  last 
trial  of  strength  ; but  Constantine,  though  emperor  in  the 
West,  had  been  bred  in  the  East,  and  judged  that  Chris- 
tianity was  the  better  religion  to  patronise.  Yet  he 
brought  into  his  State  Religion  from  Mithra  the  name  of 
Sun-Day ; and  from  the  same  source  the  Christian  ideas 
of  Hell  were  modified  and  made  more  definite.  Mithraism 
did  not  die  at  once : Julian  fostered  it  as  the  only  alternative 
to  Christianity,  and  the  Roman  aristocracy  at  once  rallied 
to  it ; but  on  the  Christian  victory  fierce  persecution  of  the 
rival  religion  followed,  and  the  temples  were  widely 
destroyed.  For  awhile  the  Mithraic  worship  of  the  rising 


Manich^ism 


75 


sun  was  adopted  by  Christians,  but  this  has  long  been 
left  to  the  Parsis.  As  Mithraism  fled,  its  mantle  fell  on 
Manichseism  with  a double  portion  of  its  spirit,  and  the 
struggle  was  renewed  with  a nobler  antagonist. 

Mani  was  a widely  travelled  thinker,  who  wrought  out 
a system  on  the  foundation  of  old  Babylonian  thought, 
with  elements  added  from  Zoroaster,  the  Buddha,  and 
Persian  Christianity.  Dropping  all  the  barbaric  idolatry, 
he  introduced  a spiritual  worship  ; his  doctrine  was  the 
old  Persian  dualism,  his  morality  the  high  ethics  of  Chris- 
tianity and  Buddhism.  But  while  these  loans  gave  great 
vogue  to  his  system,  and  made  it  the  next  formidable 
rival  to  Christianity,  the  one  point  that  claims  our  attention 
is  his  transportation  to  the  West  of  the  Buddhist  scheme 
whereby  there  was  a circle  of  initiated  monks  surrounded 
with  an  undefined  fringe  of  hearers.  We  remember  that 
the  Buddha  found  in  vogue  mere  individualistic  asceticism  ; 
that  he  reformed  and  humanised  it ; and  that  he  placed  his 
monks  under  social  discipline  with  definite  rules.  These 
features  were  copied  by  Mani,  and  while  independently 
of  him  in  Egypt  the  Indian  asceticism  grew  up,  and  the 
organisation  into  convents  was  efiected  by  Pachomius 
and  Basil  for  the  East,  and  by  Benedict  for  the  West,  yet 
their  efforts  were  aided  by  the  same  plan  being  successful 
in  the  rival  Manichsean  community.  What  this  meant  for 
European  missions  will  presently  be  seen.  Meantime  we 
must  note  that  while  Manichseism  never  had  a chance  against 
Christianity  backed  by  the  power  of  the  State,  yet  it  held 
its  own  intellectually,  almost  capturing  Priscillian  and 


76 


Success  in  Europe 


Augustine.  On  into  tlie  Middle  Ages  it  wrestled  in  Gaul ; 
at  Orleans  its  votaries  were  found,  in  Languedoc  the  priests 
of  Eome  feared  it,  and  at  length  the  Albigenses,  accused 
by  them  of  Manichaeism  in  the  thirteenth  century,  were  only 
stamped  out  ruthlessly  by  a crusade. 

But  Greek  Christianity  became  Eomanised  in  the  West, 
and  the  great  contribution  was  the  imperial  uniformity 
gradually  exacted.  The  heathen  emperor  had  judged 
aright,  the  Bishop  of  Eome  became  an  emperor  of  the 
Church.  If  Justinian  at  New  Eome  codified  the  civil  law, 
Dionysius  codified  the  canons  of  the  councils,  adding  to 
them  the  decretal  letters  of  the  Popes.  At  the  time  this 
meant  nothing  for  missions ; but  as  soon  as  a man  with 
a missionary  spirit  became  Pope,  it  meant  the  dehberate 
extension  of  Christianity  and  the  Eomanising  of  aU  the 
West. 

3.  The  Uncivilised  Tribes  : Keltic,  Teutonic, 

AND  Slavonic 

Lance,  shield,  and  sword  relinquished,  at  his  side 
A beadroU,  in  his  hand  a clasped  book, 

Or  stafE  more  harmless  than  a shepherd’s  crook. 

The  warworn  chieftain  quits  the  world,  to  hide 
His  thin  autumnal  locks  where  monks  abide 
In  cloistered  privacy. 

Not  sedentary  all : there  are  who  roam 

To  scatter  seeds  of  hfe  on  barbarous  shores ; 

Or  quit  with  zealous  steps  their  knee-wom  floors 
To  seek  the  general  mart  of  Christendom ; 

Whence  they,  like  richly  laden  merchants,  come 
To  their  beloved  cells. 


WOBDSWOBTH. 


Martin  of  Tours 


77 


With,  the  winning  of  the  Greek  and  Eoman  world, 
one  great  victory  was  won  by  missionaries  in  Europe. 
Now  we  look  into  the  lands  to  the  West  and  North  to  see 
the  progress  among  other  nations.  Observe  first  the 
rehgion  that  prevailed  in  Gaul,  Ireland,  and  Britain,  the 
homes  of  the  Kelts. 

Besides  the  universal  substratum  of  worships,  where 
wells,  stumps,  and  stones  receive  adoration,  we  hear  of  a 
god  of  rhetoric  and  writing  portrayed  by  a bronze  statue 
one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  in  a splendid  temple  on 
the  Puy-de-D6me  : of  a goddess  Brigit  very  popular  in 
Ireland,  guardian  of  medicine  and  smiths  : of  a horned 
god  guarding  the  nether  world  : of  Llud,  worshipped  at 
Stonehenge,  and  at  fountains,  where  the  rite  was  to  draw 
water  in  a tankard  and  dash  on  a slab ; worshipped  also 
at  Cavan,  where  was  a great  image  plated  with  gold  and 
silver  before  which  the  first-born  were  sacrificed  to  him 
as  god  of  war.  These  are  but  specimens  from  the  Keltic 
pantheon. 

The  great  missionary  in  Gaul  was  Martin,  who  after 
a soldier’s  career  in  garrison  at  the  north,  and  a stay  in  a 
monastery  off  the  south  coast,  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Tours 
in  371  A.D.,  and  gave  himself  for  the  rest  of  the  century 
to  evangehstic  journeys  with  enthusiastic  monks.  He 
could  combine  deeds  of  violence  on  the  idols  with  Chris- 
tianisation  of  the  heathen  customs  ; of  this  a good  example 
was  his  taking  over  a pagan  festival  stiU  known  after 
him  as  Martinmas.  Other  survivals  are  the  Breton 
Pardons  or  the  Cornish  Patterns,  watch-nights  at  the 


78 


Success  m Europe 


sacred  wells,  hanging  rags  on  the  bushes  around  these 
with  prayers  for  cures. 

The  great  wave  of  missionary  monks  of  which  Martin 
is  such  an  illustrious  instance  was  felt  in  Britain,  where 
the  old  civihsation  was  being  wrecked  by  the  heathen 
Angles,  and  the  surviving  Christians  were  being  crowded 
back  to  the  west.  Thence  they  sought  a refuge  across  the 
channel,  landiag  near  Wicklow  and  Wexford,  which 
long  remained  the  headquarters  of  Christianity,  though 
they  pushed  up  the  coast  and  leavened  aU  the  eastern 
population.  Two  points  we  must  attend  to  in  this  in- 
vasion of  a new  heathen  field  : the  monastic  character 
of  the  workers,  and  the  compromise  with  local  customs. 

Hermits  seeking  their  own  salvation  were  an  Indian 
invention,  transplanted  to  Egypt  after  the  days  of  Alex- 
ander. The  Buddha  had  banded  these  together  and  set 
them  to  propagate  his  teaching  ; the  banding  and  dis- 
ciplining of  the  Christian  hermits  was  first  undertaken 
by  Pachomius  of  Egypt,  who  taught  them  to  work  and 
worship.  This  system  was  transplanted  again  to  Italy 
by  Athanasius,  while  Augustine  fostered  it  in  Africa, 
Cassian  of  Marseilles  and  Martin  of  Tours  in  Gaul.  At 
each  transplantation  the  system  had  shed  something 
local  or  accidental,  and  was  gaining  in  value.  Now 
through  Brittany,  Cornwall,  and  especially  through  South 
Wales  it  reached  Ireland.  But  whereas  in  the  warm 
lands  beyond  the  Mediterranean  very  httle  toil  is  needed 
to  support  life,  so  that  the  Eastern  monks  in  Europe 
tend  to  worship  and  contemplation ; in  the  colder  North- 


Monks  as  Missionaries 


79 


West  there  must  be  more  activity,  and  the  monks  were 
often  great  civihsers,  illustrating  the  value  of  labour  by 
free  men,  and  undermining  slavery  by  their  example. 
Martin  of  Tours  and  bis  disciples  now  asked  what  nobler 
work  there  could  be  than  mission  work  in  heathen  lands, 
and  a new  turn  was  given  to  monastic  ideals.  And  thus, 
independently  of  the  Buddha,  the  same  end  was  attained ; 
and  the  monasteries  became  schools  to  train  foreign 
missionaries,  libraries  and  publishing  houses  to  equip  them 
with  books,  and  hospitals  for  them  to  retire  to  on  furlough. 
Thus  about  400 a. D.  a Briton  called  Ninian,  trained  at  Eome, 
settled  on  the  coast  of  the  Irish  Sea,  and  built  a stone 
church  near  Whithern,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  famous 
Martin,  with  a monastery  which  became  a centre  of  pro- 
pagation as  far  as  the  Grampians.  Here  lived  wild 
Highlanders,  who  from  their  habit  of  flinging  aside  their 
clothes  and  rushing  into  battle  naked,  but  with  painted 
bodies,  are  known  as  Piets.  Unfortunately  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Eoman  Legions  made  way  for  the  invading 
Angles,  and  in  a letter  to  Ceretie  the  Christian  British 
King  of  Strathclyde,  we  find  that  he  was  allied  not  only 
with  Christian  Irish  settled  to  the  North,  but  vnth  these 
Piets  who  had  relapsed  from  the  faith  and  are  styled 
Apostates.  The  work  of  Nmian  was  more  lasting  in  the 
vales  of  Cumbria  ; at  Penrith  was  a well  sacred  to  the 
pagan  British,  which  he  took  over,  so  that  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  him.  Even  to-day  the  maidens  go  to  Ninian’s 
Well,  and  drop  pins  to  see  if  their  lovers  will  be  true  to 
them ; and  on  the  four  Sundays  in  May,  festivals  are  held 


80 


Success  in  Europe 


here  in  wMcli  tlie  arcliaeologist  traces  th.e  old  pagan  worship 
which,  the  Christian  missionary  allowed  to  remain  as  an 
innocent  diversion. 

The  same  policy  was  pursued  with  the  Irish  by  the  many 
nameless  or  obscure  monk-missionaries ; they  utilised 
what  they  found,  and  did  not  make  a point  of  iutroduc- 
iug  Gallic  or  British  or  Koman  methods.  They  concili- 
ated the  Druids,  celebrated  the  Saviour  on  the  old 
idol  pillars  in  three  languages — Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Latin  : Soter,  Jesus,  Salvator  ; and  so  strove  not  to  beat 
down  the  ancient  civilisation,  but  to  win  it  for  Christ. 
And  so,  from  the  first,  Irish  Christianity  was  a learned 
Christianity.  The  Bards  were  won,  and  induced  to  attach 
their  schools  to  the  monasteries,  to  tune  their  harps  to 
Irish  Christian  hymns.  In  return,  their  custom  of  shaving 
the  front  half  of  the  head  was  adopted,  and  became  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  the  Irish  missionary.  The  kings 
were  won,  and  a relative  of  each  was  installed  as  head 
of  the  monastery  for  the  clan,  and  consecrated  as  bishop. 
The  old  holy  weUs  were  not  filled  up  ; but  when  the  people 
followed  their  chiefs,  they  were  led  to  the  famihar  scene 
of  worship,  there  to  be  baptized.  If  open  defiance  of  old 
custom  was  occasionally  shown  in  fighting  the  sacred  fire 
on  Easter  eve,  the  more  usual  plan  was  to  take  over 
and  Christianise  any  innocent  habit. ^ 

1 The  story  of  Patrick  is  so  familiar  that  reference  to  him  can  hardly 
be  omitted.  But  the  oldest  accounts  of  his  life  were  not  written  down 
for  two  centuries,  and  a careful  examination  of  them  hy  Zimmer  shows 
that  they  are  false  and  partisan.  There  certainly  was  a British  Christian 
called  Patrick,  who  worked  in  Ireland  and  has  left  two  genuine  writings  ; 


Kentigern  and  Columba 


81 


A famous  missionary  in  the  north  and  west  of  Britain 
was  Kentigern.  Son  of  a Welsh  nrm  by  her  captor,  an 
English  king,  he  took  up  Ninian’s  work  in  Strathclyde,  and 
labomred  as  far  south  as  Carhsle,  where  the  Welsh  were  still 
pagan.  But  as  the  king  frowned  on  his  doings,  he  went 
to  see  the  great  Welsh  archbishop,  David,  newly  returned 
from  his  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  evangelising  the 
pagan  Welsh  in  Pembrokeshire.  On  the  journey  Kenti- 
gern paused  near  the  Dee,  and  there  built  a wooden 
monastery  that  soon  housed  a thousand  monks.  Recalled 
to  Strathclyde  by  a new  king,  he  handed  over  the  Deeside 
monastery  to  his  convert,  Asaph,  and  returned  to  the 
banks  of  the  Clyde,  where  he  named  the  new  capital 
Glasgow.  From  there  to  Carhsle  he  wandered  and 
preached  for  the  rest  of  his  life  ; indeed,  holy  wells  named 
after  him  are  foxmd  even  in  the  Enghsh  kingdom  of 
Northumbria.  Once  at  the  northern  edge  of  the  kingdom 
he  met  another  famous  missionary,  Columba,  who  had 
come  direct  from  the  Scots  in  Ireland  to  the  Scots  and 
Piets  north  of  the  Clyde.  The  two  evangehsts  changed 
staffs,  and  the  crosier  once  borne  by  Columba,  then  for 
nineteen  years  by  Kentigern,  was  shown  at  Ripon  till  the 
Reformation. 

Columba  settled  on  the  isle  of  Iona,  where  arose  a 

he  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  Palladius,  ordained  by  Pope  Celestine 
and  “ sent  as  first  bishop  to  the  Irish  believing  in  Christ.”  But  this 
contemporary  statement  of  Prosper  Tiro  shows  that  the  conversion  of 
[ the  Irish  was  already  accomplished ; and  that  Patrick  was  simply  an 
organiser,  like  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  with  the  important  difference  that 
Ij  he  was  rejected  by  the  people  he  sought  to  subject. 

' 7 


82 


Success  in  Europe 


dwelling  for  tlie  missionaries,  another  for  their  visitors,  a 
kitchen,  a dining-room,  a chapel,  all  woven  of  osiers  and 
plastered  with  clay ; these  were  grouped  around  a grassy 
sward  and  sheltered  by  an  earthen  rampart,  outside 
which  were  the  farm  buildings.  This  settlement  became 
the  centre  whence  the  missionaries  sailed  in  their  wicker 
canoes  aU  through  the  archipelago.  At  first  they  needed 
interpreters,  and  it  took  nearly  three  centuries  before  the 
Scots  from  Ireland  subdued  the  piratical  Highlanders  and 
replaced  the  Pictish  tongue  by  the  Scottish.  But  the 
missionaries  were  eager  to  civilise  and  Christianise  ; round 
the  Hebrides  they  sailed,  up  the  lochs  into  the  heart 
of  the  land,  and  as  soon  as  a few  disciples  were  gathered 
by  preaching  they  were  taught  to  weave  a wicker  church 
with  a room  for  the  missionary.  One  or  two  pupils  were 
left  to  instruct  the  new  disciples,  and  were  cheered  by 
frequent  visits  from  Iona.  Before  long  a stone  cross  was 
carved,  and  sometimes  the  alphabet  would  be  added  round 
the  edge,  that  the  natives  might  be  taught  to  read.  For 
though  as  early  as  Caesar’s  day  the  Druids  used  to  write, 
they  kept  their  knowledge  as  a treasured  secret ; but  the 
Christian  missionary  sought  to  spread  the  art  everywhere, 
and  many  beautiful  copies  of  the  Scriptures  were  produced 
in  the  wattled  huts.  In  such  work  Columba  spent  his  fife, 
and  when  he  died  in  597  a.d.  the  Highlands  were  occupied 
for  Christ. 

Nor  did  his  followers  confine  their  labours  to  their  own 
race.  From  the  Hebrides  they  sailed  on  to  the  Orkneys, 
the  Shetlands,  the  Faroes,  and  even  to  Iceland.  Before 


Irish  Missionaries  Abroad 


83 


the  Norse  pirates  arrived  here,  the  Scottish  missionary  had 
pushed  out  with  his  crosier,  his  bell,  and  his  Bible.  Indeed, 
there  are  Norse  tales  that  their  influence  extended  down 
the  western  shores  of  the  Atlantic ; and  one  student  of 
Mexico  interprets  the  old  legends  of  white  men  from  the 
sea  to  mean  the  arrival  of  Irish  missionaries  in  Central 
America,  where  they  did  something  to  leaven  the  native 
religion.  But  all  this  is  not  preserved  to  us  in  detail,  and 
at  the  best  the  work  was  isolated  and  died  out.  For 
abiding  results  we  must  turn  from  Ireland  to  the  south- 
east of  Europe. 

Before  the  death  of  Columba,  a namesake  of  his,  born 
in  Leinster  and  trained  at  the  monastery  of  Bangor  in 
Ulster,  had  sailed  with  twelve  helpers  for  the  continent. 
They  settled  down  in  the  Vosges  mountains,  where  all 
civilisation  had  been  trampled  out  by  repeated  invasions, 
and  where  the  bear  and  wolf  roamed  through  dense  forests. 
Here  they  built  their  wattled  home,  and  spent  their  time 
felling  the  trees  and  tilling  the  land,  copying  Bibles  and 
praying.  The  example  won  hundreds  of  the  heathen 
tribes,  and  other  settlements  were  planted  out  in  the 
neighbourhood,  to  which  even  the  nobles  of  the  Franks 
and  Burgundians  brought  their  sons.  Indeed,  within  fifty 
years  all  the  North  of  the  country,  which  had  relapsed 
into  paganism,  was  won  by  fresh  Irish  immigrants,  or 
by  colonists  from  this  centre.  But  the  jealousy  of  the 
worldly  bishops  and  the  anger  of  an  adulterous  queen  drove 
away  Columban  after  twelve  years.  Spending  a mournful 
vigil  by  the  tomb  of  his  great  predecessor  Martin,  whose 


84 


Success  in  Europe 


work  he  had  really  done  over  again  among  the  invaders 
with  their  nominal  Christianity,  he  went  up  the  Ehine 
into  Switzerland.  Here  at  first  his  burning  heathen 
temples  and  flinging  idols  into  the  lakes  hindered  a new 
start,  but  on  the  lake  of  Constance  he  found  an  old  church 
which  he  made  the  centre  of  fresh  work.  This  he  placed 
under  his  pupil  Gallus,  who  taught  the  people  to  garden 
and  fish,  and  so  won  them  where  the  denunciations  of 
Columban  repelled.  Ere  long  GaUus  saw  one  of  his 
converts  Bishop  of  Constance,  and  he  moved  on  to  found 
another  missionary  centre  stiU  known  as  St.  Gall,  which  in 
three  hundred  years  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
schools  of  Europe.  Meantime  the  uncompromising 
Columban,  after  abandoning  the  thought  of  preaching  to 
the  Slavonians,  pushed  on  over  the  Alps  and  founded 
another  centre  among  the  Lombards  at  Bobbio,  where  he 
died  in  old  age,  while  his  disciples  spread  out  over  the 
plain  and  even  as  far  as  Fiesole,  overhanging  Florence, 
if  not  to  Tarentum  on  the  sea. 

The  success  of  this  mission  called  forth  others,  and  up 
the  Rhine  sailed  many  more  Scots,  planting  monasteries 
among  the  heathen  tribes.  Belgium  too  was  evangelised, 
and  the  archbishop  with  his  three  helpers  sealed  their 
testimony  with  their  blood.  North  Holland  and  Friesland 
excited  the  concern  of  Wilfrid  and  of  Egbert,  abbot  in 
Connaught ; so  at  length  Willibrord,  who  had  for  twelve 
years  been  in  training  there,  went  with  eleven  others. 
We  hear  of  his  being  wrecked  on  Hehgoland,  where  he 
slew  some  sacred  cattle  and  baptized  converts  in  the  holy 


Emulation  of  Italians 


85 


i well.  We  hear,  too,  of  his  buying  boys  and  training 
them  to  be  missionaries ; of  his  stirring  up  Christians 
of  the  continent  and  of  England  to  generous  help ; 
and  of  the  Christianising  all  the  lowlands  by  the 
coast. 

Such  work  could  not  pass  unnoticed,  and  in  those  dark 
i ages  Rome  was  still  the  centre  of  all  civilisation  for  the 
West.  The  story  how  monks  were  turned  missionaries 
i and  were  reviving  the  duty  of  evangehsing  the  heathen 
j was  calculated  to  fire  any  ardent  soul.  And  one  such  had 
, God  raised  up  in  Gregory,  himself  a monk  in  Italy.  The 
; monks  of  Benedict  had  hitherto  laboured  in  the  fields  and 
; ^ prayed,  and  it  was  no  part  of  Benedict’s  scheme  that  they 
should  be  foreign  missionaries.  But  the  Keltic  monks 
had  now  shown  what  could  be  done  for  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel.  Gregory  wished  to  go  to  England  in  person,  but 
God  had  other  work  for  him,  and  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  the  Christian  forces  in  Rome. 

In  the  last  year  of  Columba’s  fife  in  Iona,  Gregory  sent 
out  a mission  band  of  Itahan  monks,  who  were  extremely 
reluctant  to  undertake  this  novel  enterprise.  He  com- 
pelled them  to  go  forward,  and  they  broke  ground  among 
the  English  in  Kent  and  Yorkshire.  Although  they  failed 
all  but  utterly,  the  Keltic  monks  of  Iona  at  once  took 
up  the  friendly  challenge.  Am  exile  from  Northumbria 
had  been  at  their  island  home,  where  he  was  converted ; 
and  when  he  fought  his  way  to  his  father’s  kingdom,  he 
sent  north  for  missionaries.  Soon  he  installed  Aidan  on 
: the  isle  of  Lindisfarne,  where  arose  a church  of  spht  oak 


86 


Success  in  Europe 


thatched  with  grass.  And  till  Aidan  learned  the  English 
speech  the  king  himself  did  not  disdain  to  interpret  his 
sermons.  Converts  were  soon  gained ; and  one  of  the 
earliest,  Cuthbert  by  name,  did  grand  work  at  Melrose 
and  Eipon,  Lindisfarne  and  York  ; as  simple  monk  or  prior 
or  bishop,  he  was  earnest  in  his  travel  and  preaching, 
till  Northumbria  rang  with  his  fame,  and  Cuthbert  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  names  for  centuries. 

From  Lindisfarne  missionaries  went  to  the  Midlands, 
and  at  Lichfield  the  name  of  Chad  is  justly  honoured. 
His  brother  became  the  apostle  of  Essex,  while  Wilfrid  of 
York  much  later  evangelised  Sussex,  winning  his  way  by 
teaching  the  natives  how  to  fish.  We  hear  of  the  mission- 
aries riding  in  bands  from  place  to  place,  beguiling  the 
way  with  chanting  the  Latin  psalms.  The  bishop  became 
the  king’s  right-hand  man,  the  fount  of  culture,  training 
preachers,  planting  them  out,  itinerating  to  evangehse  and 
to  encourage  the  lonely  workers  ; he  was  probably  as  busy 
a man  as  could  be  found.  At  Whitby  arose  a great 
missionary  college  presided  over  by  the  Abbess  Hilda. 
New  converts,  men  and  women  alike,  were  often  brought 
here  for  training  and  instruction,  then  sent  back  again  to 
be  points  of  light  in  their  homes  and  villages. 

Meantime  the  Italians  returned  to  the  charge  in  the 
south,  and  won  Wessex.  Within  fiifty  years  from  the 
death  of  Columba,  four  English  bishops  had  been  appointed. 
Two  conferences  took  place  between  the  Churches  of  the 
English,  which  resulted  in  their  abandoning  many  Keltic 
customs  and  falling  into  line  with  the  Italian ; presently 


Statesmanship 


87 


they  bowed  out  the  missionaries,  and  organised  themselves 
as  a national  Church  in  communion  with  Rome.  This 
should  remind  us  that  faithful  missionaries  must  distinguish 
between  what  is  of  the  essence  of  the  Gospel,  what  is  mere 
accidental  custom,  and  what  is  national ; only  the  first 
need  be  taken  up  and  incorporated  into  the  Christianity 
of  a new  nation.  Thus  of  the  points  which  the  converts 
of  the  Scotch  waived,  one  was  that  the  heads  of  the  clergy 
should  no  longer  be  shaved  in  front  from  ear  to  ear,  a custom 
of  the  heathen  Druids  carried  over  into  the  Scottish 
Church ; another  was  that  the  old  Christian  calendar 
which  they  had  inherited  should  be  given  up  for  an  improved 
revision ; another  was  some  detail  in  the  administration 
of  infant  baptism.  In  the  same  way  we  must  not  be 
surprised  if  in  the  Malay  archipelago,  where  nine  American, 
four  British,  and  twelve  Dutch  societies  are  at  work,  the 
thirty-eight  thousand  converts  may  some  day  consult 
together  and  decide  to  form  a Malay  Church,  compromising 
on  many  details,  and  producing  a type  of  Christianity  con- 
genial to  their  habits. 

The  programme  laid  down  by  that  great  missionary 
statesman,  Gregory,  was  full  of  wisdom  ; he  directed  that 
not  all  Roman  ways  were  to  be  transplanted,  but  that 
Roman  and  British  and  Gallic  usages  were  aU  to  be  con- 
sidered. He  advised  that  the  old  pagan  temples  might  be 
cleared  of  idols  and  used  for  Christian  worship,  and  that  as 
the  people  were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  oxen  to  their  gods, 
they  might  still  be  encouraged  to  come  on  the  day  dedicated 
to  some  martyr  or  saint,  build  their  wattled  huts  around 


88 


Success  in  Europe 


the  church,  and  hold  the  feast  as  of  old,  but  now  in  honour 
of  the  saint.  And  in  Yorkshire,  a stronghold  of  the  Keltic 
mission,  may  stiU  be  seen  an  old  menhir  at  which  the 
heathen  had  worshipped,  on  which  the  missionaries  carved 
a cross,  and  beside  which  grew  up  a church.  But  the 
Keltic  influence  is  not  to  be  seen  in  churches  and  abbeys  ; 
their  humble  dweUings  of  wattle  and  daub  have  long  been 
replaced  by  stately  Enghsh  or  Norman  fanes  ; they  beheved 
that  mighty  as  is  the  trowel,  mighty  as  is  the  sword,  mightier 
yet  is  the  pen  ; and  from  the  first  they  spent  their  energy 
in  giving  the  people  the  Word  of  God.  Splendid  copies  of 
the  Psalms  and  Gospels  were  made  at  Lindisfarne,  Jarrow, 
and  Whitby ; and  if  these  were  still  in  Latin,  for  that  nothing 
Enghsh  was  yet  in  writing,  yet  two  pupils  of  the  Irish 
missionaries,  Caedmon  in  the  north  and  Aldhelm  in  the  south, 
versified  the  Bible  story  and  sang  it  by  the  roadside  in  the 
abbey ; while  presently  the  native  Church  produced  a 
Bede  who  set  himself  to  translate  the  Gospel  into  plain 
Enghsh  prose. 

The  work  of  the  Keltic  missionaries  had  latterly  lain 
among  the  great  Teuton  races.  These  had  been  evan- 
gelised already  in  two  fashions.  When  the  Franks  had 
broken  into  the  empire,  the  Christian  clergy  there  had 
seen  to  the  new-comers.  And  Eastwards,  when  Wulf  the 
Goth,  sent  to  Constantinople  as  a hostage,  had  been  won 
for  Christ,  he  returned  North  of  the  Danube  to  teU  his 
people.  This  work  he  made  permanent  by  making  the 
first  European  version  of  the  Scriptures,  a generation 
before  Jerome  began  to  revise  the  Latin  for  Western 


Monks  and  the  Bible 


89 


Europe.  For  awhile  the  Goths  resisted  the  Gospel, 
banished  Wulf  and  his  converts,  sought  out  Christians 
everywhere,  and  insisted  on  their  eating  meat  sacrificed 
to  idols,  or  being  burned  in  their  households.  But  being 
themselves  attacked  by  the  Huns,  they  accepted  Chris- 
tianity as  the  condition  of  being  granted  an  asylum  in 
the  empire.  And  now  with  their  own  vernacular  Bible 
they  became  missionaries  to  their  kin ; and  wherever 
they  settled,  in  Austria,  Italy,  South  France,  Spain,  and 
North  Africa,  the  Gospel  was  carried  in  Teuton  guise.  It 
deserves  notice  that  the  Teutons  were  at  first  bitterly 
hostile  to  monasticism,  and  everywhere  forced  monks 
back  into  social  hfe.  The  two  mission  agencies,  monks 
and  the  Bible,  are  seldom  associated,  though  indeed  Jerome 
shows  that  for  an  estabhshed  Church  a monk  can  do 
good  work  in  revision,  and  Theodore  and  Hadrian  ren- 
dered good  service  in  organisation. 

But  now  the  question  was  of  Teutons  outside  the  empire, 
and  again  a converted  Teuton  was  successful,  again  was 
the  success  maintained  by  a vernacular  Bible.  The 
great  organiser  of  missions  now  was  an  Enghshman, 
Winfrid  by  name,  but  renamed  Boniface  by  a second 
Pope  Gregory.  Born  on  the  borders  of  Cornwall,  where  he 
saw  Keltic  and  Benedictine  monks  rivalling  one  another, 
bred  at  NutceU  near  Winchester,  he  went  to  see  what 
Wniibrord  was  doing  in  Friesland.  He  recognised  his 
call  abroad,  and  with  a letter  from  his  bishop  won 
the  Pope’s  commission.  Kelts  and  Franks  and  Scots 
had  planted ; he  now  took  up  the  watering.  Somehow 


90 


Success  in  Europe 


his  predecessors  had  no  gift  of  organising,  which  is  not 
strong  among  Kelts  ; but  he  had  something  of  the  English 
genius,  and  his  labours  gave  stability  to  the  cause.  He 
did  not  slavishly  follow  old  precedents,  but  instead  of 
bidding  the  converts  vaguely  renounce  the  devil  and  all 
his  works,  he  bade  them  renounce  Wodin  and  Thor  by 
name.  He  thought  life  too  short  to  be  divided  between 
mission  work  and  farming,  and  drew  supplies  of  money 
and  food  and  clothes  from  his  friends  at  home.  He  sent 
for  women  to  labour  among  women.  He  would  brook 
no  opposition  to  his  plans,  once  he  had  won  the  con- 
fidence of  the  Pope  and  was  made  Archbishop  of  Mainz  ; 
one  recalcitrant  helper  he  at  last  imprisoned ! And  in 
the  same  drastic  spirit  he  went  once  to  the  sacred  oak 
of  Thor,  and  before  a crowd  of  pagans  hewed  it  down 
with  his  own  hand,  causing  a Christian  church  to  be 
built  of  its  timber.  Trained  himself  to  the  Latin  Bible, 
yet  the  discovery  that  Latin  was  a live  language  in  Italy 
seems  to  have  set  him  thinking.  When  he  returned 
he  set  a lad  to  read  the  Scripture  ; this  he  did  fluently, 
but  it  proved  that  he  was  merely  pronouncing  the  words 
without  understanding,  and  this  though  he  was  grandson 
of  the  abbess,  newly  left  school.  Boniface  translated 
the  passage  and  preached,  and  the  lad  was  so  attracted 
that  next  day  he  rode  off  with  the  missionary  and  gave 
all  his  life  to  the  same  service.  Whether  Boniface  himself 
followed  up  the  hint  is  not  clear ; but  within  fifty  years 
the  old  Diatessaron  of  Tatian,  the  composite  hfe  of  Christ, 
was  turned  into  German  poetry,  and  the  Heliand  became 


Taking  the  Sword 


91 


the  popular  epic  of  the  people,  setting  forth  Christ  as  the 
Healer. 

Another  style  of  mission  was  inaugurated  by  Charles 
the  Great,  who  had  seen  something  of  the  success  attending 
the  Muslim  campaigns.  He  set  out  to  conquer  the  Saxons 
and  force  on  them  the  Gospel,  so  behind  his  armies  of 
warriors  came  the  armies  of  monks.  While  the  soldiers 
hewed  down  the  sacred  groves,  slew  the  sacred  horses,  de- 
[ stroyed  the  idols  and  the  caldrons,  the  monks  had  the 
I harder  task  of  dealing  with  the  home  religion,  the  wishing- 
weUs  and  trees,  the  village  heroes,  the  belief  in  fairies  and 
elves.  With  this  they  seem  to  have  dealt  wisely,  planting 
the  Good  Seed  in  hope  that  the  tares  could  be  rooted  out 
after  awhile.  If  in  this  they  were  too  sanguine,  at  least 
the  survivals  everywhere  in  Germany  and  England 
do  not  detract  from  the  glory  due  to  Christ.  It  is  no 
defacement  of  religion  to  call  our  days  after  Tiu  and 
Woden  and  Frigga  and  Sseter,  or  to  scour  the  White 
“ Horse  on  the  Berkshire  Downs,  or  for  the  Royal  Family 

ito  be  drawn  by  white  horses — aU  of  them  relics  of  the  old 
Arian  worship.  A single  exception  is  known  to  the  general 
i destruction  of  idols  : at  the  present  day  one  may  be 
seen  outside  an  Antwerp  church,  often  decked  with  flowers 
^ by  wives  desiring  children.  This  must  be  a step  beyond 
what  Pope  Sergius  contemplated  when  he  ordered  that 
festivals  should  be  adjusted  to  the  old  heathen  holy  days, 
a policy  that  accounts  for  much  of  the  Belgian  May-day 
celebrations.  It  is  pleasant  to  find  that  at  a synod  in 
Frankfort  missionary  matters  were  discussed,  and  on  the 


92 


Success  in  Europe 


one  hand  the  policy  of  cutting  down  pagan  trees  and 
groves  was  approved,  while  on  the  other  it  was  emphati- 
cally declared  that  “ there  is  no  tongue  in  which  prayer 
may  not  be  ofiered.” 

Then  came  the  problem  of  the  Teutons  across  the 
Baltic,  the  fierce  Norsemen,  whose  pirate  barks  threw 
them  on  every  coast  to  harry  or  destroy.  All  around 
the  shores  of  Britain  they  practically  eradicated  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  story  of  how  they  were  there  won  for 
Christ  is  part  of  the  home  mission  tale.  But  the  slaves 
they  captured  brought  among  them  some  knowledge  of 
the  White  Christ,  and  in  their  later  Eddas  we  note  a leaven 
of  Christian  thought,  a recognition  that  Baldur  must  die 
and  the  gods  pass  down  to  the  twilight,  while  the  world 
is  prepared  for  better  gods. 

Ground  was  broken  in  their  homes  by  Amskar,  a monk 
from  Corbey  near  Amiens,  given  the  honorary  title  of  Arch- 
bishop of  Hamburg,  but  really  leaning  on  a missionary 
abbey  in  Flanders.  He  ransomed  Scandinavian  slaves, 
and  trained  them  there  before  dispatching  to  their  kins- 
men. The  Northmen  were  defiant  of  the  Christ.  While 
the  settlers  in  the  English  Danelagh  and  the  Normandy  of 
France  came  to  terms  with  the  local  god,  not  so  they. 
If  their  kings  were  converted  and  tried  to  force  them  too 
to  destroy  the  idols,  to  bestow  the  sacred  ring  on  some 
favoured  queen,  to  burn  the  brush  that  sprinkled  the 
blood  on  the  worshippers,  to  forswear  horse-flesh — then 
they  fought  their  king,  and  when  worsted  sailed  ofi  to 
Iceland  or  Greenland,  or  South  again  to  a Wineland  that 


Gauntlet  or  Gospel 


93 


might  be  a refuge  for  these  persecuted  pilgrim  fathers. 
It  is  not  pleasant  to  read  the  doings  of  Hakon  and  the 
Olafs ; but  Longfellow  has  seized  the  spirit  of  the  times 
and  made  them  familiar  to  us. 

I am  the  god  Thor ! 

I am  the  War  god ! 

I am  the  Thimderer ! 

Here  in  my  Northland, 

My  fastness  and  fortress, — 

Reign  I for  ever  ! 

Force  rules  the  world  still. 

Has  ruled  it,  shall  rule  it ; 

Meekness  is  weakness. 

Strength  is  triumphant ; 

Over  the  whole  earth 
StiU  is  it  Thor’s  Day. 

Thou  art  a god  too, 

0 Galilaean  ! 

I And  thus  single-handed 

Unto  the  combat. 

Gauntlet  or  Gospel, 

Here  I defy  Thee  ! 

One  sketch  must  suffice  to  show  the  difficulties  of  the 
task  here — the  winning  of  Iceland,  last  stronghold  of  the 
Norse  faith.  Olaf  the  White,  Edng  of  Dublin,  learned 
;;  Christianity  from  his  Irish  subjects  ; and  on  his  death 
I his  widow  came  to  end  her  days  in  Iceland.  So  long  as 
she  made  no  attempt  to  force  her  religion  on  others,  the 
estabhshed  Church  of  Odin  tolerated  her  dissent,  and 
allowed  a cross  to  be  erected.  But  after  her  death  it  was 
thrown  down,  and  Christianity  faded  out  as  it  had  done  a 


94 


Success  in  Europe 


century  earlier.  Next  came  a Saxon  priest,  and  laboured 
four  years  quietly  preaching.  A graphic  account  is  given 
of  his  contest  -with  a demon  inhabiting  a holy  stone,  how 
his  prayers  availed  nothing  for  two  days,  but  on  the  third 
a sprinkhng  with  holy  water  spht  the  stone  to  pieces, 
and  the  doubting  bonder  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the 
White  Christ.  Next  came  Thangbrand,  scorned  as  the 
drunken  priest,  setting  back  the  infant  cause.  But  the 
times  were  against  the  old  paganism,  and  at  last  in  the 
annual  A1  Thing  the  whole  matter  was  debated.  The 
pagan  leader  proposed  a compromise  : the  old  temples 
should  be  abohshed,  and  national  sacrifices  should  cease  ; 
the  Lord’s  day,  Easter,  and  Yule  should  be  observed ; 
but  there  should  be  no  prohibition  of  eating  horse-flesh, 
nor  any  inquiry  into  the  worship  at  home,  and  immersion 
should  be  not  in  the  cold  lake  but  in  the  hot  springs.  The 
terms  were  accepted,  and  soon  the  Icelanders  were  gather- 
ing around  the  Table  of  Peace. 

It  is  accepted, 

The  angry  defiance, 

The  challenge  of  battle  ; 

It  is  accepted. 

But  not  with  the  weapons 
Of  war  that  thou  wieldest ! 

Cross  against  corselet. 

Love  against  hatred. 

Peace-cry  for  war-cry ; 

Patience  is  powerful. 

He  that  o’ercometh 

Hath  power  o’er  the  nations  ! 


The  Four-Century  War 


95 


stronger  than  steel 
Is  the  sword  of  the  Spirit, 

Swifter  than  arrows 
The  life  of  the  truth  is. 

Greater  than  anger 
Is  love,  and  subdueth  ! 

Wlien  at  last  Knut  reigned  over  an  empire  that  in- 
eluded  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Britain,  when 
Danes  became  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  and  Englishmen 
bishops  in  Denmark,  then  we  may  reckon  that  the  victory 
was  won,  and  that  the  Northmen  at  home  as  abroad  were 
accepting  Christ,  though  it  was  1075  before  Thor  and 
Wodin  were  outlawed  in  Sweden.  Let  us  not  forget  that 
it  took  more  than  two  hundred  years  from  the  time  when 
Ebbo,  the  Primate  of  France,  began  by  baptizing  Harald 
Klak,  till  the  time  when  Knut  went  as  pilgrim  to  Eome ; 
while,  if  we  look  back  to  the  time  when  Augustine  and 
Aidan  began  in  England,  more  than  four  centuries  were 
taken  to  win  for  Christ  the  tough  Teuton  race.  And  shall 
we  be  daunted  if  a single  century  of  Protestant  work  among 
the  hard  thinkers  of  the  Orient  has  accomplished  so  little  I 

Long  before  the  Teutonic  races  were  won  by  the  Gospel, 
this  was  preached  also  to  the  last  great  section  of  the 
Arians  in  Europe,  the  Slavs,  comprising  the  Bulgarians, 
Moravians,  Bohemians,  Poles,  Prussians,  Wends,  Russians, 
etc.  Three  specimens  of  the  work  may  be  glanced  at — the 
mission  of  Cyril  and  Methodius  in  Moravia  ; the  search  of 
the  Russians  for  God ; and  the  conquests  of  the  Teutonic 
knights  in  Prussia. 


96 


Success  in  Europe 


Moravia  was  a borderland  suffering  from  rival  missions  ; 
the  wars  of  Charles  the  Great  had  introduced  compulsory- 
baptism  and  the  Latin  services ; but  the  rulers  strove  for 
independence,  and  pleaded  -with  the  emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople for  missionaries  to  teach  them  in  their  o-wn 
tongue.  Two  Thessalonians  were  sent  them  with  the  order 
to  translate.  Out  of  Greek  and  Armenian  and  Hebrew 
letters,  eked  out  -with  some  original  shapes,  they  con- 
cocted an  alphabet  of  forty  signs,  and  proceeded  to  render 
into  Slavonic  the  Gospels  and  Acts  and  Psalms.  At  this 
the  Pope  interfered  ; but  after  long  argument  he  was 
persuaded  to  sanction  their  work,  only  -with  the  restriction 
that  service  was  to  be  in  Greek  or  Latin.  The  Mora-vian 
nation  was  soon  absorbed  into  others ; but  the  Slavonic 
Bible  remained  only  too  well,  for  despite  changes  in  the 
fourteenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  it  stiU  is  the  official 
Bible  of  the  Eussian  Church. 

Turn  to  see  how  this  Church  arose.  By  the  tenth 
century  a great  kingdom  was  ruled  from  Kieff,  and  many 
attempts  were  made  to  -win  the  ruler.  Mushms  and  Jews 
were  rebufied  at  once,  German  Christians  failed,  but  a 
Greek  Christian  induced  him  to  send  deputations  to  study 
all  these  in  their  homes.  On  their  report  he  adopted  Greek 
Christianity,  captured  Kherson  in  the  Crimea,  was  there 
wedded  to  the  emperor’s  sister,  and  baptized  by  her  clergy. 
His  courtiers  and  sons  followed  suit,  the  national  idol 
was  destroyed,  and  the  temple  replaced  by  a church ; 
while  the  people  came  by  thousands  at  his  bidding  to  be 
immersed  in  the  Dnieper.  After  this  sensational  beginning. 


Fall  Down  and  Worship 


97 


the  work  was  followed  up  steadily,  and  all  the  civilisation 
of  Constantinople  was  imported  with  its  religion,  schools 
arismg,  the  Slavonic  Bible  and  a Slavonic  liturgy  being 
introduced.  True  that  the  Mongols,  who  wrought  such 
harm  to  Christianity  in  China  and  Central  Asia  and  Persia, 
did  grievous  damage  here  for  over  two  centuries  ; but  the 
Church  held  its  own,  and  once  the  State  rose  again,  the 
Church  spread  quickly  till  printing  gave  the  Eevised  Bible 
by  1581  as  the  best  means  of  completing  the  victory. 

Long  before  then  the  Slavs  between  Russia  and  the 
Germans  had  heard  the  Gospel.  Here  there  was  strong 
opposition  organised  by  the  heathen  priests,  and  missions 
on  the  simple  Evangelical  plan  failed  utterly.  An  imposing 
deputation  with  a bishop  at  its  head,  weU  equipped  with 
all  manner  of  impedimenta,  fared  better,  having  the 
countenance  of  the  duke,  and  on  one  day  seven  thousand 
Pomeranians  were  immersed  in  three  huge  baptisteries. 
As  the  pagan  hierarchy  and  the  stately  temples  captivated 
the  people,  more  arrogant  Christian  clergy  erected  even 
more  splendid  cathedrals,  and  gradually  established  a 
S footing.  More  forcible  methods  were  employed  on  the 
Baltic  islands,  and  on  the  capture  of  Rugen,  Bishop 
Absalom  himself  hacked  down  the  enormous  idols  revered 
by  the  people  far  and  near.  But  it  was  found  wise  to  let 
the  isle  remain  a privileged  State,  with  numerous  churches, 
kept  up  at  no  cost  to  the  islanders.  So  at  last  the  very 
j high  priest  of  paganism  in  Prussia  could  be  attacked. 
Peaceful  methods  failing,  two  bodies  of  crusaders  united 
with  the  blessing  of  Rome,  and  proceeded  to  conquer  the 
8 


98 


Success  in  Europe 


land,  colonising  it  with.  Christians  from  Germany,  reducing 
the  natives  to  slavery,  but  offering  some  remission  of  hard- 
ship to  any  who  would  be  baptized.  With  the  pagan 
priests  extirpated,  their  temples  razed,  their  divine 
serpents  and  Hzards  killed,  their  sacred  fires  put  out,  their 
holy  groves  hewn  down,  the  people  passed  over  by  degrees 
to  Christianity.  And  so  in  Prussia  and  Lithuania  the 
victory  of  the  Cross  was  assured  by  1400  a.d.,  just  about 
the  time  when  we  saw  its  defeat  in  Asia  accomphshed. 

While  Christianity  had  been  spreading  to  the  north  of 
Europe,  it  had  suffered  severe  checks  to  the  south.  The 
armies  of  Islam  conquered  Spain  ; while  Charles  the  Great 
conquered  the  Saxons,  subdued  Anatoha  by  the  time  the 
Norse  were  won,  and  pushed  up  to  the  upper  Danube  to 
counterbalance  the  Letts.  Nowhere  did  they  forcibly 
suppress  Christianity,  for  always  the  People  of  the  Book 
might  retain  their  rehgion  by  paying  a special  tax.  But 
all  propagation  of  Christianity  is  forbidden  under  Mushm 
rule  ; and  any  attempt  to  win  these  new  peoples  had  to  be 
from  without,  by  the  strong  arm  breaking  the  power  of 
Islam. 

The  kings  of  Leon,  Castile,  Portugal,  and  Aragon  slowly 
fought  their  way  forward,  checked  twice  by  two  great 
waves  of  African  Muslims.  In  the  time  of  success  small 
mercy  was  requited  for  the  tolerance  shown  to  the  Chris- 
tians ; and  the  lot  of  the  subject  Moors  was  made  so  hard 
that  either  they  retreated  to  the  independent  Mushm 
States,  or  accepted  baptism  which  was  aU  but  compulsory. 
Crusades  were  organised,  an  Inquisition  founded  to  verify 


Spain  Regained 


99 


the  genuineness  of  conversions,  and  when  the  last  Moorish 
State  fell  nobly,  two  rival  missionaries  attended  to  the 
Muslims.  The  local  archbishop  learned  Arabic  and  com- 
piled catechism,  liturgy,  and  lectionary  for  his  new  flock, 
promising  even  a whole  Arabic  Bible.  But  the  Cardinal 
Ximenes  proceeded  to  bribe  converts  and  buy  up  aU  the 
Qur’ans  and  religious  books  for  an  auto-da-fe.  Soon 
these  drastic  methods  provoked  rebellion,  and  on  its  sup- 
pression the  Moors  were  either  baptized  or  banished. 
Thus  by  1500  a.d.  no  other  religion  but  Christianity 
was  tolerated  here. 

Conclusion 

So  God  delights  to  teach  this  lesson  ever— 

That  His  success  depends  on  our  endeavour. 

When  we  look  over  this  long  story  we  see  'that  the 
winning  of  Europe  was  the  accomplishment  of  two  distinct 
tasks — the  capture  of  the  great  Empire  with  aU  its 
machinery  and  prestige  ; the  civilisation  of  the  barbarians 
who  were  beyond  its  borders,  or  flocked  in  from  the  im- 
known. 

To  capture  the  Empire  was  the  work  of  three  hundred 
years — a fact  that  may  show  us  the  magnitude  of  our  task 
even  nowin  China  and  India.  The  reaction  of  the  Empire  on 
Christianity  was  most  important : theology  was  permeated 
with  Greek  philosophy;  machinery  was  fashioned  on  Roman 
models  ; and  from  the  same  source  came  the  conception  of 
a code  of  Church  law.  But  there  was  much  in  the  Roman 


100 


Success  in  Europe 


world  wliiclx  was  never  assimilated,  and  the  culture  of 
Greece  fled  from  the  Greek  Church.  Had  it  been  our  task 
to  trace  it  we  should  have  found  it  at  Baghdad  and  Cordova, 
carried  by  the  agency  of  the  Jews,  the  Persian  Christians, 
and  the  Muslims.  But  the  Christian  Church  of  Europe 
broke  with  the  art  and  literature  of  the  Empire,  and  was 
on  the  whole  uncultured.  To  find  a man  like  Synesius,  at 
once  an  ecclesiastic  and  a scholar,  is  a startling  exception. 
And  when  there  came  a renaissance  of  this  rejected  art  and 
hterature,  it  provoked  in  the  old  Empire  blank  infidelity, 
or  beyond  the  Empire  a reformation  of  religion.  The 
warning  stands  for  missionaries  not  to  ignore  the  heritage 
of  the  past,  but  to  believe  that  God  has  worked  among 
heathen  nations,  and  desires  His  work  to  be  utilised,  not 
scorned.  The  Jews  had  many  advantages, — especially 
that  they  were  entrusted  with  the  Word  of  God ; that 
from  them  sprang,  according  to  the  flesh,  the  Saviour  of 
the  world ; that  they  were  honoured  to  be  the  fijst 
bearers  of  the  message  of  salvation,  which  transcends  all 
others  : but  the  Gentiles  were  not  utterly  overlooked  by 
God  through  all  the  ages,  and  they  had  their  gold  and 
frankincense  and  myrrh  to  lay  at  the  feet  of  the 
Redeemer. 

The  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  empire  was  the  easier 
because  no  other  religion  at  first  had  any  vitality;  and  when 
Neo-Platonism,  Mithraism,  and  Manichaeism  appeared, 
they  found  the  Church  already  well  developed,  and  not 
averse  to  using  force  to  complete  its  victory.  Such  a 
consideration  may  again  give  us  pause  in  contemplating 


The  Sword  of  the  Spirit 


101 


the  modem  situation  in  China  and  India,  where  there 
are  religions  very  much  alive,  and  actively  propagating, 
indeed  winning  converts  perhaps  as  fast  as  Christianity. 

Professional  missionaries  were  few  after  the  first  century 
of  eSort ; local  jealousy  almost  suppressed  them.  The 
spread  took  place  from  the  strategic  centres  occupied  by 
the  wisdom  of  the  earliest  missionaries,  and  by  the  influ- 
ence of  purely  indigenous  churches. 

The  indispensable  tool  was  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular. 
The  Greek  Scriptures  were  at  once  appropriated  from  the 
Jews,  and  gradually  enlarged  by  the  writings  of  the  earliest 
Christians.  In  the  West  arose  Latin  versions ; and  when 
these  seemed  too  many  and  too  rustic,  a revision  was 
deliberately  ordered  by  the  Pope  from  the  finest  linguist  in 
the  Church ; the  Latin  Bible  was  m the  hands  of  every 
missionary  from  the  West,  and  even  holds  its  own  long 
after  Latin  has  ceased  to  be  a vernacular. 

For  new  races  in  a new  age  there  was  a revival  of  apos- 
tohc  measures.  The  finer  elements  in  Christian  circles  were 
fleeing  from  the  corruption  of  nominal  Christianity,  and 
were  lights  hiding  under  bushels.  Martin  and  Gregory 
upset  the  bushels,  and  compelled  the  lights  to  lighten  the 
Gentiles.  But  although  it  might  be  pleaded  that  Paul 
considered  the  best  missionary  would  be  unmarried,  yet 
we  may  fairly  ask  whether  monks  might  not  have  been 
supplemented  with  married  couples.  The  fact  was  that  the 
evangehsation  of  the  barbarian  races  was  accomplished 
almost  entirely  by  men  in  communities  pledged  to 
obedience,  untrammelled  by  family  cares.  Seldom  do  we 


102 


Success  in  Europe 


hear  of  one  man  or  of  two  men  isolated  at  a station ; and 
when  that  policy  was  adopted  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for 
Latin  missions  to  China,  it  failed. 

These  missionaries  reversed  the  selfish  plea  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  that  the  mother-church  should  be 
supported  by  the  converts,  and  drew  heavily  on  the 
resources  of  the  mother-church  for  support  and  for  aU  the 
material  they  needed,  such  as  books,  vessels,  and  wagons. 

Preaching  was,  of  course,  their  leading  method,  and  they 
preached  chiefly  the  facts  as  to  Jesus.  As  their  converts 
came  in  they  expounded  doctrine,  but  usually  had  the  good 
sense  to  leave  alone  the  Greek  councils,  and  to  put  matters 
simply.  On  practical  afiairs — infanticide,  slavery,  torture, 
etc. — they  were  plain  spoken.  With  idolatry  of  the  pagan 
type  they  never  compromised,  and  so  utter  was  the  de- 
struction that  hardly  a single  idol  survives.  While  at 
the  proper  moment  they  were  ready  to  heave  an  idol  into 
the  river  or  cleave  it  with  an  axe,  to  hew  down  the  sacred 
trees,  yet  they  paved  the  way  by  undermining  the  faith 
in  them  first.  Aristides  and  TertiiUian  had  been  brutal 
in  their  exposure  of  the  old  Graeco-Roman  gods,  but  the 
barbarians  were  shaken  rather  by  questions  as  to  the 
origin  of  their  gods,  their  power,  their  future. 

Much  work  was  artistic  and  industrial.  A leading 
Roman  chorister  went  out  to  teach  the  barbarians  how 
to  sing  ; farming  and  building  were  introduced  by  the 
missionaries. 

Not  only  did  they  settle  in  groups,  so  that  the  work  was 
never  crippled  by  the  illness  of  one,  and  the  eccentricity 


Training  Native  Clergy 


103 


of  one  was  always  liable  to  correction  by  the  wisdom  of 
the  many  or  the  authority  of  the  head ; but  also  they 
regularly  gathered  in  conferences  from  over  large  areas, 
to  encourage,  to  compare  progress,  and  to  consult  on  future 
steps. 

Two  causes  contributed  largely  to  their  success  : accept- 
ing the  political  divisions,  and  training  aboriginal  converts 
for  the  ministry.  Every  king  in  Ireland  claimed  to  have  a 
bishop  beside  him,  so  that  it  has  been  said  that  the  bishops 
were  more  numerous  than  the  other  clergy.  And  in 
Britain  to  every  English  king  was  allotted  a bishop.  The 
kings  were  the  objects  of  special  solicitude  ; often  they 
sought  civilised  wives,  and  often  the  wives  bargained  for 
the  free  exercise  of  their  Christian  religion,  and  so  opened 
the  way  for  new  missions.  Again  and  again  it  was  found 
that  the  conversion  of  a king  led  promptly  to  the  con- 
version of  his  clan  or  sept  or  tribe  or  nation. 

The  missionaries  seem  always  to  have  had  the  wisdom 
to  recognise  that  their  work  was  transitional,  and  that 
a permanent  Church  must  be  staffed  by  natives ; and 
so  they  established  theological  seminaries.  In  many  cases 
there  was  no  permanent  centre  ; we  read  of  the  mission 
band  riding  about,  relaxing  into  races,  but  generally 
chanting  as  they  ambled  along,  with  schooling  at  the 
halts  for  meals  or  sleep.  Charles  the  Great  had  such  a 
peripatetic  college  at  his  court.  But  as  monasteries 
arose,  cloisters  were  set  apart  for  regular  training,  or 
scriptoria  where  pupils  were  taught  to  multiply  the  books 
needed.  Sometimes  the  first  supply  of  pupils  was  secured 


104 


Success  in  Europe 


by  ransoming  captives,  but  soon  there  was  no  lack  of 
volunteers  or  of  Samuels  left  by  tbeir  pious  mothers. 
And  so,  as  native  churches  arise,  foreign  superintendents 
disappear.  England  was  evangelised  by  Scots,  Italians, 
Franks,  Burgundians ; but  when  after  only  eighty  years 
a Greek  organised  the  national  Church,  it  was  stafied 
chiefly  by  English,  who  before  the  century  ran  out  were 
beginning  an  English  version,  to  be  sung  at  feasts  or  by 
the  wayside. 

But  as  to  barbarian  versions,  two  opinions  were  held  : 
the  Greeks  favoured  them ; the  Komans  never  could  quite 
reconcile  themselves  to  the  fact  that  their  own  tongue 
was  not  universal.  We  can  readily  understand  the 
difference,  for  the  Greeks  respected  nationality,  while  the 
Romans  tried  to  suppress  or  absorb  ; but  we  must  deplore 
the  Roman  attitude.  While  the  Greek  missionaries 
furthered  native  versions  for  Armenia  and  Georgia,  for 
Goths  and  Slavs,  the  Roman  missionaries  never  undertook 
a single  version  for  their  converts.  At  most  they  allowed 
mystery  plays,  when  the  sacred  story  was  dramatised  in 
the  vernacular.  When  we  remember  that  the  earhest 
complete  English  version  dates  from  the  tenth  century, 
the  French  from  the  thirteenth,  the  Bohemian,  Danish, 
and  Swedish  from  the  fourteenth,  the  German  from  the 
fifteenth,  then  we  see  that  none  of  these  were  missionary 
versions,  and  that  what  the  apostle  styles  the  Sword  of 
the  Spirit  was  never  drawn  in  the  West  for  this  holy  war. 

We  must  not  overlook  the  existence  of  missionary 
strategists  who,  themselves  free  from  distraction  in  petty 


Manuals  for  Workers 


105 


details  at  the  front,  could  think  out  at  home  the  true 
principles  of  foreign  work,  and  send  instructions  to  those 
on  the  field.  Even  to-day  a labourer  in  the  South  Seas  or 
in  Africa,  or  to  the  lower  tribes  of  America  and  Asia, 
might  read  with  advantage  what  Augustine  of  Africa  has 
to  say  about  catechising,  what  Gregory  wrote  to  Austin 
of  Canterbury,  how  Daniel  of  Winchester  counselled  his 
pupil  Boniface  when  busy  in  Germany,  and  how  Alcuin 
of  York  presided  over  the  great  training  college  of  Charles, 
and  planned  for  missionaries  to  follow  up  the  armies  of 
the  Franks. 

If  it  be  asked  what  Christianity  absorbed  from  the 
heathendom  of  the  barbarians,  it  must  be  pointed  out 
that  to  them  it  came  very  slowly  and  by  degrees.  The 
Empire  was  in  some  sense  a whole,  and  if  Christianity 
captured  it  as  a whole  it  caught  a Tatar ; for  the  Empire 
really  captured  it  and  transformed  it,  so  that  all  the 
Christianity  we  know  has  come  through  Grseco-Koman 
channels.  With  the  barbarians  it  was  not  so ; even 
English  customs  did  not  very  deeply  tinge  the  Christianity 
of  the  converts  made  by  the  Enghsh  missionaries.  There 
were  German  customs,  Spanish,  Russian ; but  none  of  these 
have  more  than  local  value.  If  we,  for  instance,  call  the 
feast  of  the  resurrection  after  our  forefathers’  goddess 
Easter,  or  that  of  the  birth  after  Yule,  and  stiU  bum  the 
log  and  deck  the  Christmas  tree,  yet  some  of  these  customs 
die  naturally  when  we  migrate  away  from  the  old  pagan 
sites,  and  none  of  them  seem  to  detract  from  the  real 
worship  of  the  one  God. 


106 


Success  in  Europe 


Eleven  hundred  years  were  occupied  in  winning  the 
barbarians  of  Europe,  though  they  had  no  organised 
scheme  of  thought  to  overcome,  and  as  a rule  no  powerful 
priesthood  to  persuade  or  to  crush.  The  work  was  slow, 
but  it  has  endured.  And  no  sooner  was  it  ended  than 
there  arose  in  the  North  and  West  a movement  to  extricate 
pure  Christianity  from  the  swaddhng  bands  of  Rome.  In 
accord  with  the  temper  of  the  age,  this  led  to  wars. 
Missionary  effort  on  the  forcible  lines  of  Spain  was  trans- 
ferred by  Rome  to  new  lands  beyond  the  seas,  while  for 
two  hundred  years  the  Teutonic  nations  sought  to  main- 
tain their  independence,  not  realising  that  this  is  best 
done  by  a spirited  foreign  policy,  and  by  handing  on  to 
others  the  Gospel  they  had  received. 

Eleven  hundred  years  to  win  the  barbarians  of  Europe  ! 
With  the  experience  of  nearly  nineteen  centuries,  how 
long  shmdd  it  take  their  children,  the  leaders  of  the  world, 
to  win  all  other  barbarians  ? 


Ill 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  AFRICA 


In  the  old  days,  while  yet  the  Church  was  young. 
And  men  believed  that  praise  of  God  was  sung 
In  curbing  self  as  well  as  singing  psalms. 

There  lived  a monk,  Macarius  by  name, 

A holy  man  to  whom  the  faithful  came 

With  hungry  hearts  to  hear  the  wondrous  Word. 

He  bade  his  followers  to  be  as  brothers. 

And  die  to  self,  to  live  and  work  for  others. 

O’Reilly. 


Ill 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 

AFKICA  presents  fresh  instances  of  both  the  missionary- 
experiences  we  have  already  met — contact  with 
ancient  religions,  and  with  barbarian  tribes.  In  the 
north,  ancient  civilisations  were  won  for  Christ  in  three 

I hundred  years,  and  lost  again  in  a thousand ; in  the  centre 
and  south,  rude  tribes  are  still  accessible  to  the  Gospel 
message.  It  is  needless  to  go  over  the  story  of  the  north, 
I so  far  as  it  means  the  winning  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ; 
1 but  the  impact  of  the  new  faith  on  the  natives  they  ruled 
is  generally  overlooked,  and  will  repay  attention.  Their 
jj  history  introduces  us  to  a problem  more  serious  than 
any  we  have  met  as  yet,  a problem  not  imknown  else- 
where, but  acute  in  Africa,  the  problem  of  Islam.  Here 
: is  another  great  missionary  rehgion  which  has  supplanted 
Christianity  all  along  the  north  coast,  and  to-day  is  con- 
I tending  with  us  for  the  pagan  tribes.  Its  origin,  its 
strength,  its  weakness,  and  its  prospects  will  claim  most 
! of  our  attention. 

Two  geographical  facts  must  be  noticed  as  conditioning 

; the  progress  of  missions  here.  Outside  the  Mediterranean, 

j Africa  has  no  good  harbours,  while  its  rivers  are  broken 
I 109 

I 

! 


110 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


by  cataracts  and  bars  and  swamps ; travelling  is  not  easy 
even  at  the  present  day,  and  most  of  tbe  continent  was 
unknown  to  tbe  ancients.  Again,  a buge  belt  of  desert 
stretches  from  tbe  Atlantic  right  across  to  Persia, 
broken  only  by  tbe  narrow  valley  of  tbe  Nile  and  by  tbe 
Eed  Sea.  North  Africa  thus  has  aflBnities  with  Palestine 
and  Syria,  while  South  Arabia  is  far  more  akin  to  Africa 
than  to  Asia.  Tbe  population  of  Africa  is  deeply  influenced 
by  these  facts  ; leave  out  of  account  tbe  Pigmy  and  Hotten- 
tot, relics  of  a dwarfed  yellow  race,  and  we  see  tbe  great 
black  races  to  tbe  south  of  tbe  Sahara,  but  to  the  north 
and  up  tbe  Nile  are  two  branches  of  tbe  white  race,  often 
called  Hamite  and  Semite.  Tbe  Semites  are  tbe  later 
arrivals,  always  from  Syria  and  Arabia  ; by  sea  to  Carthage, 
across  tbe  isthmus  to  Egypt,  and  across  the  straits  at  tbe 
south  not  only  to  Abyssinia,  but  at  least  for  trade  into 
Masbona-land.  Tbe  last  of  these  great  migrations  has 
been  in  Christian  times,  and  brought  in  Islam.  But 
within  the  last  century  European  Christian  Powers  have 
thrown  themselves  on  Africa,  and  to-day  the  influence  of 
France  and  of  Great  Britain  is  most  powerful,  so  that  its 
efiect  on  missions  must  be  weighed. 

We  shall  find  it  convenient  to  group  our  topics  thus  : — 

1.  The  winning  of  the  north  coast. 

2.  Progress  in  Abyssinia  and  Arabia. 

3.  Extinction  of  Christianity  in  the  north. 

4.  The  rival  missions  to  the  blacks. 


Copts  versus  Greeks 


111 


1.  The  Winning  of  the  North  Coast 

Still  the  gods  were  in  the  temples, 

But  the  ancient  faith  had  fled ; 

And  the  priests  stood  by  their  altars. 

Only  for  a piece  of  bread ; 

And  the  oracles  were  silent. 

And  the  prophets  all  were  dead, 

W.  C.  Smith. 

In  the  early  days  of  Christianity  there  were  three  strategic 
points  to  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean  : Alexandria, 
the  Greek  centre  amid  Egyptian  beast-worship ; Cyrene, 
a Grseco-Jewish  centre,  amid  Libyan  paganism ; Carthage, 
a Eoman  centre,  amid  Phoenician  idolatry,  with  a remoter 
background  of  Berber  paganism.  Into  Alexandria  and 
Cyrene,  Jewish  influence  obtained  a ready  entrance  for 
the  faith,  even  in  apostolic  days ; indeed,  it  is  said  that  the 
Jews  of  Babylon,  adjoining  tbe  modern  Cairo,  came  over 
bodily  to  the  new  faith,  and  converted  their  synagogue  into 
a Christian  church.  The  story  of  Alexandria  and  its  learned 
Greek  teachers  is  so  familiar,  and  has  so  little  of  iuterest 
for  missions,  that  we  need  only  recall  the  anecdote  of  a 
Coptic  peasant  being  consecrated  owing  to  the  dream  of 
his  Greek  predecessor.  Aristides  declared  that  these 
Copts  were  more  ignorant  than  all  other  peoples ; and 
Origen,  who  suffered  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Coptic 
Patriarch,  owned  that  they  were  very  difficult  to  approach. 
Not  till  250  A.D.  do  we  hear  of  five  bishops  outside  the 
Greek  city,  increasing  presently  to  twenty-four,  showing 
some  progress  among  the  natives.  The  Greek  bishop  at 


112 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


Alexandria  kept  a tight  hold  over  the  country  bishops, 
and  the  troubles  under  Decius  reveal  Churches  in  the 
Fayum  restive  at  the  attempted  control  of  the  Greeks. 
When  Diocletian  renewed  persecution,  the  Copts  reahsed 
at  last  that  the  government  was  in  earnest  against  Chris- 
tianity, and  they  therefore  embraced  it  almost  as  a body. 
The  old  beast-worship  was  evidently  outworn,  and  the  new 
faith  gave  a national  bond  against  the  usurpers  from  over 
seas.  So  when  we  get  clear  vision  about  340  a.d.  we  find 
Coptic  Churches  all  up  the  Nile,  with  their  own  versions 
in  three  dialects,  successful  in  gaining  nearly  a million 
adherents,  to  the  practical  extinction  of  the  old  rites,  except 
at  Philee  and  one  or  two  other  temples.  For  instance, 
the  care  of  the  Nilometer  was  transferred  to  a Christian 
Church,  and  the  festival  of  the  annual  rising  was  celebrated 
by  the  Christian  clergy.  Another  century  saw  the  forcible 
demolition  of  all  the  httle  country  shrines. 

The  form  that  Christianity  assumed  among  the  natives 
was,  however,  most  extraordinary ; we  have  had  occasion 
to  notice  its  later  modifications  in  Europe,  but  monasticism 
in  Egypt  deserves  special  notice.  Just  as  the  hermits  of 
India  had  been  organised  into  communities  by  the  Buddha, 
so  now  the  Christians  of  Egypt  became  ascetics,  and  were 
gathered  into  labour  colonies  by  Pachomius,  a native  Copt. 
Their  development  was  barely  credible,  and  travellers  from 
other  lands  came  to  investigate.  They  found  at  Oxy- 
rhynchus  ten  thousand  monks  and  twenty  thousand  nuns, 
with  no  families  whatever ; while  in  the  suburbs  were 
secluded  Lauras,  or  minor  monasteries.  Three  other 


Three  Races  near  Tunis 


113 


places  are  mentioned,  where  the  same  extreme  course  was 
adopted.  Of  course,  in  such  communities  all  learning 
rapidly  died  out,  and  only  survived  in  the  great  towns, 
especially  among  the  pagans,  as  the  name  of  Hypatia 
reminds  us.  A sharp  distinction  is  to  be  drawn  between 
these  monks  or  nuns,  all  lay  people,  and  the  clergy,  who 
were  necessarily  married,  and  who  took  over  the  native 
custom  from  the  pagan  priests  of  completely  shaving  the 
head,  producing  the  “ tonsure  ” to  which  Athanasius  had 
objected.  At  a later  stage  the  Copts  broke  away  altogether 
from  the  Greek  Church,  and  though  the  Greek  emperor  kept 
up  a State  estabhshment  at  Alexandria,  the  Copts  went 
their  own  way  and  developed  on  purely  national  lines.  The 
only  mission  they  ever  seem  to  have  sent  forth  was  up  the 
Nile  to  Abyssinia,  where  we  shall  presently  note  them. 

Cyrene  we  must  pass  by,  and  look  on  to  Carthage.  The 
population  here  was  in  three  strata,  which  it  is  important 
to  distinguish.  First  was  the  old  Berber  aboriginal 
element,  known  then  as  Numidian,  and  to-day  as  Kabyle  ; 
white  in  colour,  though  soon  tanned  under  the  fierce  sun, 
democratic,  with  a village  system  of  government,  and 
never  possessing  any  literature,  even  at  this  day.  But  a 
race  that  could  produce  a Jugurtha,  to  fight  Rome  on 
equal  terms,  deserves  more  attention  than  it  usually 
receives.  Second  was  the  Semite  colony  from  Tyre  that 
founded  Carthage,  bringing  its  own  Hebrew  speech. 
After  seven  hundred  years,  in  which  a Hannibal  and  a 
Terence  had  appeared,  this  State  was  indeed  blotted  out ; 
but  the  people  and  the  language  remained,  though  under 
9 


114 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


the  heel  of  Eome.  Last  came  the  Latins,  who  had  ruled 
for  at  least  two  centuries  when  Christianity  came  hither. 

The  immigrant  elements  were  lending  a favourable  ear  by 
180  A.D.,  when  we  hear  of  Punic  martyrs  winning  the  great 
Latin  jurist  TertuUian  by  their  constancy.  Forty  years 
later  we  hear  of  seventy  bishops  gathered  at  Carthage,  a 
number  which  shows  us  that  the  local  organisation  of 
village  home-rule,  taken  over  by  Semites  and  Latins 
alike,  had  been  adopted  in  Christian  matters.  Presently 
appeared  a Latin  Bible ; but  we  never  hear  anything  of  a 
Hebrew  New  Testament  for  the  older  settlers,  and  even 
the  great  Augustine  never  learned  this  tongue,  spoken  by 
the  conquered  Carthaginians  aU  the  country  round.  The 
contempt  of  the  Latins  for  their  overthrown  antagonists 
seems  to  have  shown  itself  in  disdaining  to  learn  their 
language,  for  the  Old  Testament  must  have  found  many 
readers  who  needed  no  interpreter.  There  certainly  was 
strong  racial  feeling,  for  two  great  divisions  here  associated 
with  the  names  of  Novatian  and  Donatus  evinced  nearly 
as  much  pohtics  as  rehgion,  the  dissenters  being  chiefly 
Punic,  and  outnumbering  the  State  Church.  The  rivalry 
produced  great  progress,  and  we  hear  of  five  hundred 
and  sixty-five  bishops  at  a meeting  in  411  a.d.  Yet  the 
aborigines,  already  chiefly  confined  to  the  hiUs,  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  deeply  influenced  ; although  we  hear  of 
bishops  among  the  black  huts  of  the  nomads,  and  not  till 
the  monastic  movement  was  naturalised  was  much  head- 
way made  among  them.  Then  paganism  was  so  dead 
that  the  largest  old  temple,  two  miles  in  circuit,  was  made 


Quarrels  kill  Missions 


115 


over  as  a Ghristian  cemetery,  and  another  in  the  city 
became  a cathedral.  Soon  afterwards  entered  the  Vandals, 
and  if  they  opposed  the  idolatrous  State  Church  and  the 
unsocial  monks,  be  it  remembered  that  they  were  Chris- 
tians with  their  vernacular  Bible  translated  by  Wulf.  Un- 
happily, while  Christians  quarrelled,  missions  languished, 
and  the  hill  tribes  revived  paganism.  The  only  offset 
is  that  some  of  the  slaves  sent  into  the  desert  spread  their 
faith,  and  we  hear  of  work  beginning  among  the  Moors. 
As  if  there  were  not  enough  rival  Churches,  Behsarius 
introduced  the  Greeks  and  their  own  quarrels,  and  in  the 

iyear  646  a.d.,  before  any  other  religion  came  to  oppose  all 
alike,  only  one  hundred  and  ten  bishops  could  be  assembled 
" in  the  distracted  land. 

Ilf  it  be  asked  why  Christianity  never  spread  inland,  and 
was  confined  simply  to  the  strip  on  the  North  and  to  the  Nile 
j valley,  the  answer  is  that  the  desert  was  impassable,  that  the 
• value  of  the  camel  was  not  known,  and  that  not  Christianity 
alone  but  all  civihsation  was  cramped  in  hke  fashion. 

2.  Progress  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia 

Utter  the  song,  0 my  soul ! the  flight  and  return  of  Mohammed, 
Prophet  and  priest,  who  scattered  abroad  both  evil  and  blessing. 
Huge  wasteful  empires  founded,  and  hallowed  slow  persecution. 
Soul-withering ; but  crushed  the  blasphemous  rites  of  the  pagan 
And  idolatrous  Christians.  For  veiling  the  Gospel  of  Jesus, 
They,  the  best  corrupting,  had  made  it  worse  than  the  vilest. 

Coleridge. 

The  south  of  Arabia  had  little  to  do  with  the  north, 
population  and  civihsation  being  quite  distinct.  Behind 


116 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


the  barren  coasts  lies  a fertile  interior,  from  the  eastern 
province  of  Oman  and  the  pearl  islands,  always  in  touch 
with  Persia,  Beluchistan,  and  India,  along  the  Hadramaut 
strip,  to  the  most  important  district  of  Yemen  in  the 
south-west.  This  has  always  been  the  centre  of  Arabian 
life,  with  three  great  towns — Aden  on  the  coast ; Sana,  the 
pohtical  capital ; and  Mecca,  the  religious  focus,  on  whose 
“ right  hand,”  as  you  face  the  rising  sun,  the  province  lies, 
so  obtaining  its  name.  As  long  ago  as  the  days  of  Solomon, 
settlers  hence  colonised  Abyssinia,  whose  treasurer  was  won 
for  Christ  at  an  early  date. 

The  rehgion  of  the  nomad  tribes  was  fairly  simple.  In 
the  back  of  their  behefs  loomed  the  figure  of  One  God ; 
but  the  middle  distance  showed  the  Sabian  worship  of 
sun  and  moon,  which  may  have  flourished  when  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  visited  Solomon  ; the  foreground  was 
choked  with  superstitious  observances.  AH  the  coimtry 
offered  material  for  their  religion  ; dotted  about  were 
sacred  wells,  but  the  sandy  wastes  were  filled  with 
demoniac  Jinns.  Tribal  taboos  were  common,  and  feasts, 
especially  on  five  camels  torn  to  pieces  in  sacrifice.  Here 
and  there  were  sacred  areas,  vrithin  whose  boimdaries 
might  be  no  reaping,  or  hunting,  or  felling  of  trees. 
Often  a cave  would  be  here,  where  treasure  might  be  stored, 
and  then  an  aerolite  might  be  set  above  it  as  a god  to 
guard  the  deposit,  and  possibly  a priest  would  install 
himself  to  thrive  on  pious  pilgrims.  For  to  such  sanc- 
tuaries the  tribes  repaired,  as  to  a Welsh  Eisteddfod, 
blending  business,  pleasure,  and  worship  ; for  the  sake  of 


Arabian  Jews 


117 


this  a sacred  truce  was  kept,  providing  one  month  to  go, 
one  to  stay,  and  one  to  return. 

In  the  first  century  of  our  era  occurred  great  changes. 
A new  fine  of  kings  arose,  the  Himyarites  ; the  old  land 
routes  of  traffic  were  superseded  by  sea  routes,  the  old 
capital  began  to  decay,  and  its  huge  reservoirs  fell  by 
degrees  into  ruin  ; the  old  worship  of  sun  and  moon  faded 
out,  though  at  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  it  yet  lingers 
among  five  thousand  Mandaeans.  Some  scholars  attribute 
all  these  changes  to  a vast  immigration  of  Jews,  cast  out 
of  Palestine  by  the  wars  of  Vespasian  and  Hadrian ; and 
they  even  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  immigrants  con- 
verted the  king,  or  provided  a king  out  of  their  own 
number.  Harnack,  however,  conjectures  that  some  of 
these  immigrants  were  Jewish  Christians,  and  that  Pan- 
tsenus  came  and  found  the  Aramaic  Gospel  here  in  Yemen, 
not  in  Oman  or  Beluchistan. 

Not  till  the  fourth  century  do  we  have  any  clear  light 
on  the  progress  of  Christianity  here,  when  two  missionaries 
of  different  sects  arrived  by  sea,  from  Greek  lands.  Fru- 
mentius  of  Tyre,  enslaved  in  Abyssinia  as  a boy,  became  first 
its  chief  secretary,  and  then  its  chief  missionary  ; while 
Theophilus  of  Socotra,  who  found  already  in  Yemen 
Christians  of  a type  strange  to  his  Greek  customs,  built 
three  more  great  churches.  He  was  bitterly  opposed  by 
the  Jews  ; but  his  success  was  considerable,  and  presently 
four  bishops  were  appointed,  while  the  king  himself  is 
said  to  have  been  converted.  Medina  yielded  a few 
disciples,  and  several  tribes  gave  in  their  adhesion. 


118 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


notably  in  tbe  centre.  On  tbe  other  hand,  the  kingdom 
was  weakened,  tbe  pagans  of  the  centre  became  inde- 
pendent, and  about  400  a.d.  the  Qui’aysh  clan  secured 
the  keys  of  the  great  idol  temple  at  Mecca,  the  Ka’aba, 
among  whose  himdxeds  of  statues  were  said  to  be  those  of 
Christ  and  of  the  Virgin. 

Before  the  next  century  closed,  a great  immigration 
of  Egyptian  monks  strengthened  and  modified  the 
Abyssinian  Christianity.  An  alphabet  was  formed  for 
the  Ethiopic  tongue,  and  the  Scriptures  were  rendered 
into  it.  Despite  all  later  changes,  pubhc  worship  in  the 
highlands  is  still  performed  in  this  most  ancient  of 
Semitic  languages,  and  modern  travellers  say  this  is  nearly 
all  the  Christianity  to  be  found  there. 

Between  Abyssinia  and  Egypt  the  Negro  race  had 
pushed  from  the  desert  down  to  the  Nile,  and  the  great 
Theodore  of  Constantinople  sent  the  first  mission  to  the 
blacks,  by  whom  the  Nubian  king  was  baptized ; and  so 
the  foundations  of  Christianity  were  laid,  not  to  be 
obhterated  for  seven  centuries. 

There  was  a reaction  in  Yemen  when  a Jewish  proselyte 
became  king  and  entered  on  a furious  persecution. 
Thousands  of  Christians,  even  boys  and  girls,  were  speared 
or  burned  ahve  in  huge  pits,  while  the  villages  were 
plundered.  The  Abyssinians  met  force  with  force,  and 
presently  new  churches  and  new  bishops  arose  under  a 
Christian  king.  Missions  were  undertaken,  by  persuasion 
and  force  winning  both  Jews  and  pagans,  and  a grand 
cathedral  was  built  at  Sana.  The  king  proclaimed  that 


Mecca  and  its  Idols 


119 


pilgrimages  to  Mecca  must  cease,  and  that  henceforth 
Sana  would  be  the  capital  for  all  purposes,  even  for 
rehgion.  That  night  an  indignant  pagan  defiled  the 
altar  and  the  cross,  whereon  the  king  vowed  to  destroy  the 
idol  temple  at  Mecca.  But  his  army  was  entrapped  in  a 
defile  and  grievously  defeated,  and  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity was  effectually  stopped. 

We  hear,  indeed,  that  other  means  were  adopted ; that 
one  bishop  regularly  attended  the  annual  Eisteddfods, 
and  preached  constantly  in  the  open  air ; that  a convert 
from  the  Qur’aysh  translated  the  Gospels  into  Arabic ; 
but  the  kingdom  of  Yemen  drooped,  and  presently  passed 
nominally  under  the  power  of  the  Persian  Zoroastrians, 
while  in  practice  Arabia  lapsed  into  anarchy. 

Consider  now  the  condition  of  Mecca,  the  rival  centre. 
It  was  a town  whose  dwellers  were  more  cultivated  and 
more  debased  than  the  nomads.  The  Arabic  language 
is  on  all  hands  admitted  to  be  most  beautiful,  and  it  was 
here  highly  developed.  Poetry  was  greatly  esteemed, 
and  seven  classics  were  ornamentally  written  out  and 
suspended  in  the  temple.  Writing  was  such  a common 
accomphshment  that  captive  Meccans  were  able  to  ransom 
themselves  by  teaching  ten  pupils  each  how  to  read  and 
write.  But  as  often  happens  at  a centre  of  pilgrimage,  real 
faith  was  rare,  and  there  was  little  attachment  to  the  idols, 
only  to  the  profits  derivable  from  the  pilgrims.  And 
many  earnest  men  had  arisen  in  all  parts  who  rejected 
polytheism  and  were  worshipping  quietly  One  God. 

One  such  man  was  called  Muhammad,  a member  of  the 


120 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


Qur’aysli,  the  aristocratic  clan  which,  held  the  keys  of  the 
temple ; being  early  orphaned,  he  grew  up  ilUterate,  and 
to  the  end  of  his  days  could  not  read  or  write,  or  even 
speak  grammatically,  as  the  Qur’an  occasionally  shows. 
Travelhng  with  business  caravans,  he  saw  something  of 
Christian  Arabs  and  Syrians  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  and  more  of  the  Christian  monks  in  the  desert. 
Nearer  at  hand  he  saw  much  of  the  Jews,  who  formed  httle 
self-governing  communities.  Conceiving  a scorn  of  the 
polytheism  and  idolatry  prevailing,  he  presently  started 
preaching  against  it.  For  long  he  proved  that  a prophet 
has  no  honour  in  his  own  country,  and  many  of  his 
adherents  fled  to  the  Christian  realm  of  Abyssinia.  At 
length  he  found  a friendly  refuge  at  Medina,  and  his  moral 
authority  grew  so  rapidly  that  he  became  judge  and  ruler. 
Failing  to  win  the  submission  of  the  Jews,  or  their  recog- 
nition of  him  as  a prophet,  he  ceased  compromising  with 
them,  and  subdued  them  perforce.  Then  he  felt  strong 
enough  to  attack  the  Meccans,  and  at  length  reduced  them 
under  his  power.  With  them  he  did  compromise,  and 
agreed  to  retain  that  city  as  the  rehgious  centre,  pre- 
serving many  of  the  old  heathen  customs,  though  the 
idols  were  utterly  destroyed.  The  plunder  from  his 
victories  gained  many  adherents  to  his  system,  which 
was  now  both  religious  and  political ; and  besides  the 
nucleus  of  those  who  heartily  adopted  his  prophetical 
claims,  the  whole  of  Arabia  flocked  to  his  standard,  and 
he  felt  confident  enough  to  summon  the  rulers  of  the  great 
empires  to  adopt  Islam.  Though  at  his  death  there  was 


Check  ! 


121 


defection,  yet  capture  of  the  rich  towns  restored  allegiance. 
Then  came  a conflict  between  the  rehgious  party  and  the 
political ; the  former  won  a great  point  in  pubhshing  a 
standard  edition  of  the  prophecies  of  Muhammad,  hence- 
forth accepted  as  the  absolute  authority  for  Islam  ; but 
on  the  whole  the  theocracy  failed,  and  the  worldly  lust  of 
power  came  to  the  front.  So  within  forty  years  from  the 
flight  of  Muhammad  to  Medina,  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Western  Asia  and  in  Northern  Africa  was  at  an 
I end,  and  the  new  rehgion  was  consolidated  and  spreading 
I fast. 


3.  Extinction  of  Chkistianity  in  the  North 

One  of  that  saintly,  murderous  brood, 

To  carnage  and  the  Koran  given. 

Who  think  through  unbelievers’  blood 
Lies  their  directest  path  to  heaven. 

One  who  will  pause  and  kneel  unshod 
In  the  warm  blood  his  hand  hath  poured 
To  mutter  o’er  some  text  of  God 
Engraven  on  his  reeking  sword. 

Mooee. 

When  the  armies  of  Islam  came  to  Egypt,  they  found  a 
ready  welcome  from  the  native  Copts,  who  resented  the 
tyranny  of  the  Greeks.  The  conquest  was  complete  in  six 
years,  and  there  came  into  play  one  of  the  great  attrac- 
tions of  the  new  faith.  The  moment  a subject  adopted 
Islam,  not  only  was  he  exempt  from  paying  tribute,  which 
indeed  was  balanced  by  an  obhgation  to  pay  the  poor-rate, 
but  he  found  himself  a member  of  a brotherhood,  a ruling 


122 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


race.  All  signs  of  degradation  were  removed  ; tliere  might 
be  a subscription  to  start  the  new  convert,  if  be  were  poor  ; 
freedom  was  at  once  granted  to  intermarry  with  all  Musbms, 
and  the  way  was  open  to  all  power  and  office.  On  the 
other  side  the  Muslim  yoke  proved  heavier  than  the  Greek, 
and  was  frequently  made  weightier  still ; branding  on 
the  hand  was  introduced,  and  persecutions  of  this  kind 
have  twice  produced  thousands  of  converts. 

The  speed  with  which  the  Copts  adopted  the  faith  of 
Islam  can  only  be  compared  with  the  speed  with  which 
they  had  adopted  Christianity.  Of  course  the  Greek 
State  Church  practically  vanished  at  once,  whde  on  the 
other  hand  the  Persian  variety  of  Christianity  made  its 
appearance  ; but  all  power  and  culture  passed  rapidly  to 
the  Arabs,  and  the  Copts  within  a century  were  given  the 
option  of  conversion  or  banishment.  If  this  was  not 
steadily  enforced,  they  were  in  the  minority  within  another 
century,  and  the  country  people  began  to  pass  over  whole- 
sale. AU  too  late  they  were  driven  to  recognise  that 
their  vanishmg  faith  could  only  be  conserved  if  they  took 
over  the  tongue  of  their  rulers,  a measure  adopted  more 
promptly  by  the  Jews.  Nor  are  cases  wanting  when  with 
this  lever  they  actually  won  over  Muslims  to  Christianity. 
Then  came  a terrific  reaction,  when  thirty  thousand 
churches  were  demohshed.  Even  in  this  extremity  the 
Christians  kept  up  worship  in  their  houses,  and  after  nine 
years  the  persecution  slackened  ; while  the  mad  Caliph 
actually  gave  leave  to  rebuild  the  churches,  and  restored 
the  endowments.  But  the  Crusades  caused  a revival  of 


Muslim  Culture 


123 


hatred,  and  the  Muslims  burned  the  old  Christian  capital 
of  Babylon,  the  stronghold  of  the  old  national  faith ; its 
monastery  alone  remains,  at  the  south  of  the  new  Muslim 
capital  of  Cairo.  The  transfer  to  the  Muslims  of  the 
guardianship  of  the  Nilometer  alongside  it,  was  another 
sign  that  nationality  and  faith  were  broken.  From 
1200  A.D.  the  New  Testament  was  read  in  a bilingual,  and 
the  ancient  Coptic  is  now  extinct.  Quarrels  now  arose 
in  the  declining  Church ; once  for  twenty  years  no 
Patriarch  was  appointed,  and  for  want  of  one,  bishops 
died  out  in  many  places,  and  whole  districts  went  over 
to  Islam.  Next  century  there  were  fierce  religious  riots, 
with  the  usual  results,  more  destruction  of  churches, 
more  conversions  to  Islam.  The  story  can  be  gleaned 
from  Muir’s  Early  Caliphate  and  his  MameluJce  Dynasty 
of  Egypt. 

In  a sense  the  land  retains  its  old  position  as  a religious 
coimtry.  When  Ephesus  was  sacked  in  262  a.d.,  Alexandria 
stood  out  as  the  most  learned  city.  To-day  the  culture 
of  the  Muslim  world  is  almost  centred  in  Egypt.  Every 
village  mosque  has  a school  attached,  and  the  system 
leads  up  to  Cairo,  where  the  great  mosque  is  the  home  of 
a university  older  than  Oxford,  frequented  by  thousands 
of  students,  many  of  whom  are  deliberately  training  to 
be  missionaries  of  Islam.  Once  the  Nile  vaUey  was  the 
home  of  thousands  of  Christian  monks ; to-day  they  have 
practically  vanished.  Were  it  not  for  the  immigration 
of  foreigners,  Christianity  would  be  almost  contemptible  ; 
and  despite  the  predominance  of  France  and  of  England  in 


124 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


recent  years,  Egypt  is  still  one  of  the  Muslim  strongholds. 
More  than  92  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  Muhammadan, 
and  the  few  Christians  represent  nine  varieties  of  ancient 
Churches,  besides  adherents  of  modern  Protestant  missions. 
The  native  Church  of  Egypt  has  shrivelled  up  tiU  there  are 
but  ten  bishoprics  and  a few  hundred  thousand  Copts  left 
under  a Patriarch  at  Cairo.  And  since  the  bishops  are 
always  drawn  from  the  monasteries,  where  learning  is 
rare,  there  seem  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  rejuvenating 
what  was  once  a wonder  of  the  Christian  world. 

Higher  up  the  Nile  beyond  Egypt  proper,  lies  Nubia. 
Here  the  Christians  were  isolated  and  withered  away ; 
by  1520  A.D.  no  clergy  were  left,  and  quarrels  of  jurisdiction 
prevented  others  being  sent  from  Abyssinia.  The  churches 
were  closed,  and  the  population  has  long  been  Muslim. 
One  bishop  remains,  at  Khartum,  with  only  seven  churches 
in  his  diocese.  This  district  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Mahdi’s  movement,  and  so  strong  is  Muslim  feeling  that 
the  British  Government  has  only  allowed  Christian  missions 
with  great  reluctance.  Indeed,  it  is  one  of  the  remarkable 
factors  in  considering  Islam,  that  even  when  Christians 
rule,  special  consideration  is  usually  shown  to  Muslims, 
a preference  complained  of  from  every  field.  The  same 
phenomenon  is  witnessed  in  England  with  Koman  Catholics; 
and  it  suggests  that  where  there  is  a large  religious  organisa- 
tion on  an  international  scale,  accustomed  to  play  an  active 
part  in  politics,  it  inspires  a sort  of  fear  in  mere  national 
governments,  which  concede  unfair  preferential  treatment. 

At  the  head  of  the  Blue  Nile  is  the  mountain  realm  of 


Stagnant  and  Dry 


125 


Abyssinia.  An  attempt  of  the  Latins  to  capture  its  Cburcb 
failed  by  a revolution  in  1633  a.d.  ; twelve  years  later 
a Lutheran  translated  the  New  Testament  into  the  modern 
tongue,  but  since  then  the  native  Cburcb  bas  gone  its 
own  way.  Tbe  Christianity  is  a strange  compound  with 
beatbenism  and  Judaism,  and  tbe  missionary  fervour  bas 
quite  died  out.  Indeed,  tbe  Musbms  boast  that  since 
1850  A.D.  aU  pobtical  power  lies  witb  them,  and  that  a mass 
movement  of  tbe  people  away  from  Cbristianity  is  very 
probable.  But  tbis  is  expressly  contradicted  by  Noble. 
Certainly  no  attempt  is  being  made  from  Europe  to  educate 
or  influence  tbe  natives,  for  tbe  Swedish  missionaries  are 
not  allowed  to  advance  beyond  tbe  Itaban  coastal  strip, 
while  knowledge  of  tbe  ancient  ritual  language  is  really 
confined  to  twelve  thousand  monks. 

The  northern  bttoral  between  Egypt  and  Tunis  fell 
under  Musbm  influence  quickly  and  uneventfuUy;  and 
Cyrene,  which  bad  furnished  a Simon  to  bear  tbe  cross, 
and  a Lucius  to  be  one  of  tbe  first  heralds  of  tbe  cross, 
passed  out  of  Christian  history.  Then  in  tbe  old  Roman 
districts  of  Africa  and  Numidia,  where  four  sects  bad 
quarreUed  and  weakened  one  another,  hatred  of  tbe  Greek 
tyranny  united  aU  four  in  a welcome  to  tbe  Muhammadans 
as  debverers.  By  700  a.d.  Carthage  was  in  their  power,  and 
Cbristianity  was  doomed  to  stagnation.  Indeed,  within 
sixty  years,  tbe  governor  reported  to  tbe  Caliph  that  tbe 
tribute  of  infidels  bad  ceased,  as  all  were  converted — a 
statement  that  a careful  auditor  of  accounts  might  have 
questioned  as  premature. 


126 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


Here  first  did  Muslims  meet  Arian  Ckristianity,  wHcli 
denies  to  Ckrist  full  Godhead.  Since  they  themselves 
are  prepared  to  honour  Isa  bin  Miriam  as  the  last  and 
greatest  of  the  prophets  before  Muhammad,  it  would 
seem  that  the  transition  of  the  Vandals  and  Goths  to 
Islam  was  thus  facihtated. 

And  whereas  the  Berbers  had  received  httle  attention 
from  Christians,  it  is  mortifying  that  within  eight  years 
after  the  Berber  state  was  crushed,  the  army  of  twelve 
thousand  Muslims  who  sailed  to  conquer  Spain  was  com- 
posed of  Berbers,  whose  general  Tariq  himself  was  a new 
convert.  Great  efforts  were  made  to  read  and  expoimd 
the  Qur’an,  and  to  teach  the  duties  of  Islam.  Even  into 
France  the  Mushm  armies  swept,  “ slaying  and  taking 
captive,  pulling  down  churches  and  breaking  up  their 
beUs.”  Not  tiU  they  reached  the  Loire  were  they  beaten 
back  by  the  Catholic  Franks,  and  Christendom  breathed 
again. 

Within  the  subjugated  lands,  the  Churches  did  not 
succumb  utterly  and  at  once,  but  there  was  steady  decline ; 
it  is  said  that  again  and  again  revolts  occurred,  and  a 
Mushm  historian  says  that  fourteen  of  these  were  ac- 
companied with  return  to  Christianity  : but  these  never 
succeeded,  and  about  800  a.d.  there  was  fierce  retah- 
ation  and  forced  conversion.  Christianity  might  indeed 
have  regained  an  open  field  by  Norman  conquest  and 
destruction  of  Mushm  domination,  but  that  in  the  eleventh 
century  began  a series  of  Arab  invasions  from  Egypt  which 
revived  Islam  and  led  to  the  first  of  the  African  Mahdis. 


A Millennium  op  Agony 


127 


When  Iceland  was  accepting  Christianity,  and  Olaf 
was  being  worsted  in  his  Norse  crusade,  only  forty  bishops 
were  left  in  North  Africa.  When  the  Poles  were  giving 
to  the  Pomeranians  the  choice  of  baptism  or  death, 
simply  the  Archbishop  of  Carthage  remained.  That 
roused  the  Pope  to  send  new  helpers,  and  a fresh 
lease  of  life  was  given  to  the  martyr  Church  for  five 
hundred  years.  But  imder  Muslim  rule  our  faith  is 
doomed  to  mere  existence  at  the  best,  all  propagation 
being  forbidden.  Nor  can  we  wonder  if  when  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  drove  out  all  Mushms  from  Spain,  a dehberate 
attempt  was  made  to  exterminate  Christians  in  Africa. 
We  can  but  marvel  at  the  tenacity  shown  by  the  Bishop  of 
Morocco  and  his  faithful  Kabyles  down  to  this  time,  and 
sigh  as  we  remember  that  the  last  glimpse  is  when,  about 
1550  A.D.,  some  tribes  in  the  Atlas  were  observing  Christian 
rites,  and  some  of  them  were  mustered  to  be  bodyguard 
of  the  Sultan  of  Tunis.  It  is  the  more  mortifying  when 
we  reflect  that  where  Christianity  is  extinct,  the  Jews 
have  continued  to  live  on  and  be  true  to  their  faith,  re- 
sisting ahke  the  oppression  of  their  rulers,  and  the  efforts 
of  Christian  missionaries.  With  the  appearance  of  the 
Turks  in  1583  a.d.,  the  last  vestiges  of  the  Church  of 
TertuUian  and  Augustine  vanished  away. 

During  the  last  century  the  situation  has  shghtly 
changed,  for  Algeria  and  Tunis  have  passed  under  French 
rule,  and  mission  work  therefore  is  legally  possible,  but  it 
is  chiefly  engaged  in  by  Cathohcs.  And  Morocco  is  now  a 
hotbed  of  Mushm  fanaticism.  Even  the  brave  Franciscans 


128 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


have  long  ceased  to  dare  direct  work  on  the  Muhammadans, 
and  the  Protestants  who  for  the  last  twenty  years  have 
entered,  find  it  wise  to  sap  and  mine  by  Bible  distribution 
and  Medical  Missions. 

4.  The  Rival  Missions  to  the  Blacks 

Is  there,  as  you  sometimes  tell  us, 

Is  there  One  who  reigns  on  high  ? 

Has  He  hid  you  buy  and  sell  us. 

Speaking  from  His  throne,  the  sky  ? 

Ask  Him,  if  your  knotted  scourges. 

Matches,  blood-extorting  screws, 

Are  the  means  that  duty  urges 
Agents  of  His  will  to  use  ? 

COWPER. 

He  comes  with  succour  speedy 
To  those  who  suffer  wrong ; 

To  help  the  poor  and  needy, 

And  bid  the  weak  be  strong ; 

To  give  them  songs  for  sighing, 

Their  darkness  turn  to  hght. 

Whose  souls,  condemned  and  dying. 

Were  precious  in  His  sight. 

Montgomery. 

Except  for  the  North  coast  and  the  Nile  valley,  Africa 
is  the  home  of  three  races,  all  low  in  the  scale  of  civilisation 
and  religion.  A few  tribes  in  the  South,  notably  the 
Bechuanas,  have  an  elaborate  totem  system  ; near  them 
are  the  aboriginal  Hottentots.  The  Bantu  negroids  of 
the  Zambesi  and  Congo  basins  and  the  East  coast  are 
addicted  to  ancestor  worship.  The  Sudanese  negroes,. 


Slave  Trade  for  Missions 


129 


whose  strength  is  in  the  Niger  basin,  affect  nature  worship, 
taking  objects  at  random  as  their  fetishes. 

The  crusades  of  King  Louis  in  Tunis  and  Egypt  fired 
the  Muslims  to  propagate  their  faith ; and  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  saw  them  penetrate  to  the  desert, 
winning  the  Sahara  for  Muhammad,  Timbuktu  being  an 
early  and  powerful  centre  in  the  West.  It  was  the  fifteenth 
century  when  Christians  began  creeping  down  the  West 
coast  beyond  the  Canary  Islands.  The  pioneers  were  the 
Portuguese,  lately  freed  from  Arab  dominion,  and  now 
following  in  Arab  tracks.  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator 
was  urged  in  his  explorations  by  a distinctly  missionary 
motive.  Finding  that  captive  Moors  were  inaccessible 
to  the  Gospel,  he  allowed  them  to  ransom  themselves  by 
sending  instead  black  slaves  whom  he  trained  as  mission- 
aries ; by  1444  a.d.  a slave  trade  was  started  with  this 
motive.  Before  the  century  closed,  a mission  to  the 
Congo  had  won  the  king,  and  estabhshed  two  negro  bishops 
near  Stanley  Pool.  But  though  another  mission  settled 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Zambesi,  the  slave  trade  developed 
fast  under  the  patronage  of  the  bishops,  and  when  the 
riches  of  India,  China,  Mexico,  and  Peru  presently  dis- 
tracted attention  from  Africa,  the  slave  trade  continued, 
but  the  Christianising  movement  died  out,  without  any 
stable  native  Church  being  foimded.  The  Spaniards  led 
the  way  in  transporting  negroes  to  the  West  Indies,  but 
did  nothing  to  lead  them  to  Christ.  Nor  did  the  Dutch 
dp  more  at  the  extreme  South,  and  the  impulse  came  at 
length,  as  to  Paul  in  Troas.  A negro  from  the  Danish 
10 


130 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


West  Indies  met  Zinzendorf  at  Copenhagen,  and  bewailed 
the  lot  of  his  enslaved  countrymen.  Going  on  to  Herrnhut, 
he  had  the  honour  of  awakening  the  Moravians  to  their 
missionary  career.  They  soon  passed  on  to  Jamaica  and 
South  Carolina ; and  this  overleaping  of  civil  boundaries 
is  to  be  noted,  for  it  is  the  modern  revival  of  the  idea  of 
foreign  missions.  Before  the  century  closed,  the  blacks 
in  Africa  shared  the  blessing,  and  during  the  last  hundred 
years  all  sects  and  nations  have  claimed  the  privilege  of 
sending  the  Gospel. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  situation  has  changed 
again,  by  a general  opening  up  of  the  whole  continent 
to  knowledge ; by  the  European  Powers  agreeing  on 
their  spheres  of  influence  ; and  by  the  great  immigration 
into  the  colonies  of  the  South.  Here  is  now  to  be  foimd 
a white  population  not  to  be  neglected,  with  Dutch  and 
English  Bibles,  and  with  far  less  of  the  former  opposition 
to  missions,  though  there  is  some  suspicion  and  dread  of 
“ Ethiopianism  ” or  the  formation  of  a purely  native 
Church. 

But  the  interest  centres  in  the  tropics,  where  the  whites 
are  stiU  casual  visitors,  who  have  frequently  to  return 
home  to  recruit  their  health,  and  who  can  never  hope  to 
live  permanently  except  on  a few  plateaus.  Here  is  the 
battlefield  of  Islam  and  Christianity. 

Of  the  lower  races  which  have  no  stable  organised 
religion,  far  the  greater  number  are  in  Africa,  and  they 
are  disposed  to  lend  a favouring  ear  to  missionaries  who 
can  civilise  or  teach  them.  Islam  is  wide  awake  to  the 


What  is  the  Qur’an? 


131 


situation,  and  Christendom  is  awakening.  While  the 
problems  presented  in  Asia  are  vast  from  their  import- 
ance, the  problem  in  Africa  is  urgent  from  the  critical 
situation  and  the  huge  masses  that  may  be  won  or  lost 
for  Christ. 

We  have  to  remember  that  the  rival  missions  are  both 
handicapped  by  the  evil  deeds  of  mere  nominal  professors 
of  religion.  Africa  has  been  exploited  for  centuries  by 
the  white  races,  and  the  slavers  have  called  themselves 
indifferently  Muhammadan  and  Christian  : in  the  pursuit 
of  ivory  the  Muhammadans  have  done  more  evil,  in  the 
pursuit  of  rubber  the  Christians.  The  name  of  Muhammad 
is  in  worse  odour  on  the  East  coast  where  better  known, 
the  name  of  Christian  on  the  West,  for  the  same  reason  : 
and  therefore  the  Muhammadans  are  winning  their  greatest 
successes  on  the  Gold  and  Guinea  coasts ; the  Christians 
in  the  kingdom  of  Uganda. 

Let  us  see  what  Islam  really  has  to  ofier  at  the  present 
time  to  the  blacks — remembering  that  the  African  Islam 
of  to-day  is  not  the  Islam  of  Muhammad,  any  more  than 
the  American  Christianity  of  to-day  is  the  Christianity 
of  Christ ; both  have  tacitly  ignored  some  aspects  of  their 
founder’s  teaching,  and  have  taken  up  much  from  the 
experience  of  centuries.  To  do  this  we  must  first  appreciate 
to  some  extent  the  Qur’an,  the  Bible  of  Islam. 

The  watchword  of  Islam’s  creed  was : “ There  is  no  God 
but  Allah,  and  Muhammad  is  His  prophet.”  As  prophet 
i he  gave  out  various  revelations,  which  after  his  death 
!j  were  gathered  into  one  volume  rather  shorter  than  the 


132 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


New  Testament,  and  tins  Qur’an  is  regarded  as  tlie  one 
perfectly  inspired  book,  an  exact  earthly  copy  of  an 
eternal  and  uncreated  original  in  heaven. 

As  against  the  previous  heathendom  of  Arabia,  Mu- 
hammad made  some  great  points,  forbidding  idolatry, 
wine,  gambling,  divining,  slaying  of  infant  daughters ; 
but  he  took  over  many  existing  practices,  simply  purging 
them  of  their  worst  elements,  such  as  circumcision,  cere- 
monial cleanliness  and  diet,  polygamy,  slavery,  pilgrim- 
age, ceremonial  at  Mecca,  including  sacrifice,  offering  of 
hair,  casting  stones,  etc. 

Then  from  the  loftier  Sabian  system  he  borrowed  the 
practices  of  fasting  for  thirty  days,  of  swearing  by  sun 
and  moon,  of  perambulating  round  the  temple  seven  times. 

From  the  Jews  who  were  so  strong  at  Medina  he  learned 
much  in  the  way  of  legend,  which  comes  out  in  the  Qur’an. 
Stories  about  Cain  learning  from  a raven  how  to  bury 
Abel ; about  Abraham  breaking  the  idols  and  lying  about 
it,  and  being  preserved  from  Nimrod’s  fire ; about  the 
Mount  Sinai  being  hfted  up  hke  a canopy  at  the  giving 
of  the  Law ; about  the  Queen  of  Sheba  being  carried  to 
Solomon  by  a giant  Jinn ; about  sorcery  taught  by  two 
angels — these  are  specimens  of  what  the  Jews  regard 
as  mere  fables,  but  what  the  Muhammadans  accept  as 
verbally  inspired  truth.  Grant  that  these  are  perhaps 
excrescences,  and  that,  if  they  were  removed,  Islam  would 
be  the  same.  But  the  very  core  of  his  system  is  also 
Jewish  ; from  Judaism  he  learned  the  Unity  of  God,  the 
Resurrection  and  the  Judgement ; by  Jews  he  was  in- 


Distorted  Christianity 


133 


fluenced  in  his  laws  for  prayer,  for  purification,  and  for 
alms.  Indeed,  some  regard  this  element  as  so  important 
that  they  term  Islam  a revised  Judaism. 

From  apocryphal  gospels  about  Christ,  Mubammad 
gained  strange  notions,  and  the  Qur’an  has  much  to  say 
about  the  Virgin  Mary  in  her  childhood  and  early  married 
life,  though  she  is  confused  with  her  namesake  Miriam, 
the  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  Tales  are  told  about  the 
infancy  of  our  Lord,  but  very  httle  of  His  life  ; we  can 
recognise  the  Docetic  fancy  that  Christ  was  taken  up  to 
God  before  the  Crucifixion,  and  only  a hkeness  was  left  to 
be  slain.  The  promise  of  the  Paraclete  was  distorted  by 
a misreading  into  a promise  that  Muhammad  should 
come.  And  from  the  old  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead, 
through  a Coptic  Testament  of  Abraham,  the  sort  of 
story  that  Mary  the  Coptic  slave  of  Muhammad  would 
revel  in,  he  learned  about  the  balance  in  which  the  heart 
of  each  man  is  weighed  against  truth,  to  determine  his 
future — and  into  the  Qur’an  it  went.  Then  the  legend 
of  the  Christian  Sleepers  at  Ephesus  was  adapted,  and 
they  were  made  Muslim,  while  reference  to  Christians 
on  the  matter  was  expressly  forbidden. 

From  the  Persians  who  nominally  ruled  Arabia  in  his 
early  days,  Muhammad  learned  congenial  themes.  Cen- 
turies before  he  was  transported  in  one  night  on  a celestial 
steed  from  Mecca  to  Jerusalem,  a Zoroastrian  book  told 
of  a similar  adventure  of  a Persian  reformer.  The  whole 
idea  of  Paradise  and  its  pens,  to  captivate  the  heart  of 
men,  was  taken  over  bodily  into  the  Muslim  future. 


134 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


and  even  the  detail  of  the  razor  bridge  to  heaven  conies 
hence. 

In  view  of  this  Higher  Criticism  of  the  sources  of  the 
Qur’an,  it  were  easy  to  despise  it  as  a thing  of  shreds 
and  patches.  But  Higher  Criticism  often  bhnds  its 
devotees  to  the  present  value  of  a hook  or  of  a system. 
The  constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America  has  hardly 
an  original  line  in  it,  all  is  borrowed  ; yet  who  doubts  that 
it  was  chosen  with  care  and  pieced  together  into  a very 
working  and  harmonious  whole  1 By  this  time,  the 
Mushm  system  has  worked  for  twelve  centuries,  and  has 
learned  how  to  adapt  itself  to  the  peoples  it  approaches. 
Our  concern  now  is  to  note  its  application  to  Africa.  We 
may  look  first  at  the  content  of  the  message,  its  gospel ; 
then  at  the  way  its  message  is  delivered,  its  missionaries. 

First,  Islam  comes  with  the  news  of  one  God,  and 
teaches  that  all  the  burdensome  worship  of  fetishes  is 
to  be  abandoned.  This  does  away  with  a nightmare  of 
witchcraft,  and  must  be  a veritable  gospel  to  all  but  the 
witch-doctors  and  the  juju  priests  whose  occupation 
is  gone.  And  this  God  is  not  utterly  aloof ; however 
long  He  has  winked  at  times  of  ignorance.  He  sent  a 
series  of  messengers  with  revelations  of  His  will  growing 
ever  clearer  and  clearer,  until  the  message  for  this  age 
was  dehvered  now  nearly  thirteen  hundred  years  agone, 
while  there  is  constant  expectation,  nowhere  more  keen 
than  in  Africa,  that  He  will  again  break  silence  and  speak 
by  a Mahdi.  However  mysterious  are  His  ways.  He  is 


Allah  versus  Our  Father 


135 


compassionate,  and  He  enjoins  that  His  votaries  ap- 
proach Him  five  times  a day  in  prayer. 

Now  in  all  these  respects  we  can  fully  appreciate  the 
attractiveness  of  the  news,  and  its  truth.  When  we 
look  more  closely  to  realise  the  point  where  our  message 
difiers,  we  see  that  the  character  of  the  Muslim  God  is 
vague,  and,  where  distinct,  is  repulsive.  Palgrave  de- 
scribes the  doctrine  as  the  pantheism  of  force,  and  the 
Muslim  God  as  a jealous  sterile  autocrat.  If  this  is  so, 
we  see  that  we  can  add  several  features  in  our  presentation 
that  should  be  far  more  attractive.  We  know  something 
of  the  justice  of  God,  evinced  in  His  hatred  for  sin  and 
His  desire  for  holiness  in  His  creatures  ; something  of 
the  love  of  God,  shown  especially  in  one  great  historic 
event,  the  gift  of  a Saviour.  We  know  of  the  help- 
fulness of  God,  who  constantly  answers  prayer— prayer 
for  daily  varying  needs,  not  in  stereotyped  forms  for 
mere  general  wants,  but  for  definite  gifts.  The  God  of 
Islam  is  a God  of  the  past  and  of  the  future  ; He  did  speak, 
He  wiU  speak  and  judge  ; our  God  is  also  a God  of  the 
present,  who  does  love  and  hear  and  answer  and  help. 
And  herein  the  message  of  Islam  is  radically  deficient ; 
for  it  can  but  counsel  submission  to  the  inscrutable  will 
of  God,  and  thus  is  a moral  agnosticism. 

Then  Muhammad  said  that  this  God  tolerated  no  inter- 
mediary between  Himself  and  the  true  believer.  He 
denied  the  right  of  any  priest  to  intervene.  Herein  we 
can  see  the  immense  value  of  the  work  he  did,  which 
largely  remains.  But  the  mind  of  man  seems  unable  to 


136 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


rest  in  the  thought  that  we  may  approach  God  absolutely 
direct ; even  a Christian  poet  inquires  : — 

Oh,  how  shall  I,  whose  native  sphere  ■ 

Is  dark,  whose  mind  is  dim, 

Before  the  InefEable  appear, 

And  on  my  naked  spirit  bear 
The  uncreated  beam  ? 

Therefore  a general  worship  of  saints  has  arisen  all  over 
Islam,  and  in  practice  these  receive  much  attention  and 
many  requests  for  help  and  intercession.  Whether  they 
were  real  and  eminent  men,  whether  ancient  gods  taken 
over,  or  mere  figments  of  imagination  presiding  at  ancient 
seats  of  paganism,  there  the  Muslim  saints  are,  and  con- 
stant pilgrimages  are  made  to  their  shrines  for  aid.  We 
are  thoroughly  familiar  with  this  failing  of  the  race ; 
Greek  and  Latin  Christianity  are  equally  tainted  with  it, 
so  that  the  Koman  Catholic  missionaries  dealing  with 
Mushms  find  themselves  constantly  at  a loss,  and  have 
to  defend  themselves  against  a charge  of  idolatry  rather 
than  attack  Islam.  But  we  who  take  our  stand  on  the 
Bible  alone  can  announce,  without  fearing  that  our  message 
is  behed  by  our  deeds,  that  no  one  cometh  unto  the  Father 
except  through  Jesus  Christ,  that  there  is  one  Mediator 
between  God  and  man.  Himself  Man,  and  that  He  shares 
this  glory  with  none  other.  Herein  the  deep  craving  of 
the  heart  for  some  peace-maker  is  frankly  met,  and  the 
limits  of  mediation  are  sharply  cut.  And  whereas  the 
thought  of  sin  is  also  present  in  many  hearts,  and  the 
sense  that  punishment  is  merited,  the  message  of  Islam 


Outward  Worship 


137 


here  is  unsatisfying ; while  Christianity  has  the  Gospel 
that  the  Mediator  is  the  Sin-Bearer  of  the  world,  which  is 
able  to  allay  the  troubled  conscience. 

Look  next  at  the  outward  observances  of  religion. 
Islam  says  that  religion  is  to  permeate  the  whole  life,  that 
prayer  is  a duty  as  well  as  a privilege,  and  that  nothing  is 
to  interfere  with  its  punctual  performance ; and  religion 
is  a social  thing,  so  that  once  a week  there  is  to  be  united 
prayer,  with  possibly  preaching  to  foUow.  But  this  is 
only  the  beginning,  so  that  the  day  of  a pious  MusHm  is 
ordered  throughout  by'  a religious  code,  based  on  Judaism 
and  developed  by  tradition.  In  that  storehouse  of  Muslim 
customs,  the  Arabian  Nights,  three  or  four  whole  nights 
were  occupied  simply  in  outlining  the  scheme  of  customary 
observances.  If  Peter  groaned  under  the  yoke  which  he 
and  his  fathers  were  unable  to  bear,  the  Muslim  proselyte 
may  well  be  aghast,  and  feel  that,  if  his  pagan  priests 
chastised  him  with  whips,  he  is  now  threatened  with 
scorpions.  In  contrast  with  this  we  may  boldly  assert 
that  the  yoke  of  Christ  is  easy,  and  His  burden  hght. 

The  Law  of  Islam  is  indeed  elevated  as  contrasted  with 
paganism.  We  may  say  about  most  of  it  what  Paul  said 
of  its  source,  the  Law  of  Moses,  “ the  Law  is  holy  and  just 
and  good.”  It  condemns  much  that  is  evil,  it  commends 
much  that  is  praiseworthy.  But  it  has  serious  limitations. 
It  can  educate  up  to  a certain  point,  and  then  leaves  ; 
it  leads  out  of  the  flood  of  heathenism  on  to  higher  land, 
which  proves  to  be  only  an  island  with  narrow  resources. 
It  does  not  even  pretend  to  supply  motive  power,  only 


138 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


to  sketch  an  ideal ; and  while  the  ideal  is  really  low,  it 
yet  is  too  high  for  many  to  persevere  towards  in  their  own 
strength.  As  Paul  put  it,  the  Law  reveals  the  innate 
sinfulness  of  man,  but  does  nothing  to  cure  it.  Worse  than 
that,  it  is  outward,  not  inward ; a Muslim  is  invited  to 
conform  by  sheer  force  of  will,  but  has  to  secure  his  driving 
force  outside  the  Law.  Now  as  against  all  this  system, 
the  Christian  missionary  can  say  ; “ Law  is  made  for 
bad  men,  not  for  Christians  ; if  it  has  educated  you  up  to 
the  pitch  of  wishing  for  salvation,  pardon,  help,  it  can 
do  no  more.  Christ  can  blot  out  sin ; Christ  can  supply 
the  power  you  want ; Christ  reveals  a higher  ideal  of  hfe, 
which  will  prove  more  attractive  the  nearer  you  come  to 
reahsing  it : the  hfe  of  a Christian  is  indeed  a servitude  to 
Christ,  but  as  compared  to  the  life  of  a Muslim,  it  is  perfect 
freedom.” 

If  so  far  we  feel  that  the  message  of  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary is  as  winsome  as  that  of  the  Mushm,  what  about 
the  moral  demands  made  on  the  convert  ? The  code  of 
Muhammad  is  high,  but  inelastic  ; he  forbade  wine,  but 
knowing  nothing  of  spirits,  did  not  forbid  them,  and  many 
expositors  permit  their  use.  The  Christian  has  no  elabor- 
ate code,  but  offers  three  tests  : “ Does  this  harm  you  ? 
does  it  offer  a temptation  to  your  neighbour  ? is  your 
conscience  quite  clear  as  to  its  use  ? ” Or,  consider  the 
much  debated  question  of  sexual  relations  : Muhammad 
introduced  a reform  by  drawing  the  hne  at  four  wives, 
with  facihties  for  divorce,  and  unlimited  concubines. 
And  quite  possibly  his  message  stiU  finds  tribes  to  whom 


Immorality  of  Islam 


139 


that  may  be  a restriction.  But  too  often  it  comes  as  a 
degradation  of  an  ideal  already  known,  and  absolutely 
lowers  the  tone  of  previous  morals.  And  if  it  be  claimed 
that  at  least  it  averts  the  “ social  evil,”  it  must  be  plainly 
asserted  that  it  does  no  such  thing,  as  readers  of  Arabic 
literature  and  travellers  in  Muslim  lands  know  well.  And 
under  Muslim  tolerance  there  has  grown  up  an  awful 
system  of  worse  vice,  not  to  be  dilated  on. 

When  we  compare  the  ideal  demands  made,  the  Chris- 
tian standard  shows  no  compromise  for  the  hardness  of 
men’s  hearts,  but  is  plain  and  simple.  But  of  sin  and 
holiness  Muhammad  had  no  conception.  He  himself 
violated  the  customs  of  his  own  times  without  scruple, 
robbing  pilgrims,  approving  the  assassination  of  women, 
marrying  a widow  within  three  days,  contracting  an 
incestuous  marriage  with  his  daughter-in-law.  Two  of 
these  breaches  of  morality  he  justified  by  producing 
new  revelations  to  justify  ! He  could  not  even  obey 
the  very  laws  he  promulgated ; and  instead  of  four  wives 
he  had  ten,  besides  negotiating  for  thirty  others.  What 
sense  of  sin  was  there  in  such  a man  ? And  what  can  be 
expected  from  his  followers  ? 

Then  look  at  the  social  message  of  Islam.  Professor 
Arnold  asserts  that  “ as  soon  as  the  pagan  negro,  however 
obscure  or  degraded,  shows  himself  willing  to  accept  the 
teachings  of  the  prophet,  he  is  at  once  admitted  as  an 
equal  into  ” the  society  of  all  the  brotherhood  of  Islam. 
Now  in  the  Muslim  world  of  India,  this  equality  may 
be  true  in  theory,  and  on  this  hope  a low-caste  Hindu 


140 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


or  an  out-caste  aboriginal  has  a great  social  inducement 
to  adopt  Islam : but  he  is  hkely  to  find  that  in 
practice  the  strata  of  society  are  well  marked,  even 
within  the  brotherhood.^  For  the  early  days,  one  of 
the  first  authorities  on  Islam,  Sir  William  Muir,  declares 
that,  “ in  point  of  fact,  the  equality  was  hmited  to  the 
Arab  nation  ; the  right  of  any  brother  of  alien  race  was 
but  a dole  of  food  sufllcient  for  subsistence,  and  no  more. 
. . . The  progeny  of  the  Arab  sire  (whatever  the  mother) 
was  kept  sedulously  apart  so  as  never  to  mingle  with  the 
conquered  races.  . . . Subject  peoples,  even  if  they  em- 
braced Islam,  were  of  a lower  caste.  . . . Arab  ladies  as 
a rule  married  only  Arab  husbands.  . . . The  brotherhood 
of  Islam  was  confined  to  the  Arab  race,  and  with  its 
dominancy  disappeared.”  ^ And  a detailed  story  is  given 
of  how,  at  the  sack  of  Mosul,  in  the  year  749  a.d.,  four 
thousand  Muslim  negroes  in  the  conquering  army  were 
massacred  for  fancying  that  they  were  free  to  consort 
with  Arab  women. 

If  that  refer  to  the  past,  hear  an  English  statesman  of 
thirty  years  ago  speak  as  to  the  message  of  a modem 
Mushm  missionary  : “He  can  not  only  give  them  many 
truths  regarding  God  and  man  which  make  their  way 
to  the  heart  and  elevate  the  intellect,  but  he  can  at 
once  communicate  the  shibboleth  of  admission  to  a social 
and  political  communion  which  is  a passport  for  protection 
and  assistance  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  waU  of  China. 

^ Census  Report  of  India,  vol.  i.  part  i.  p.  643. 

^ Muir,  Caliphate,  pp.  160-162,  606,  443. 


A Brotherhood  of  Faith 


141 


Wlierever  a Muslim  house  can  be  found,  there  the  negro 
convert  who  can  repeat  the  dozen  syllables  of  his  creed 
is  sure  of  shelter,  sustenance  and  advice  ; and  in  his 
own  country  he  finds  himself  at  once  a member  of  an 
influential,  if  not  of  a dominant  caste.  This  seems  the 
real  secret  of  the  success  of  the  Muslim  mission  in  West 
Africa.  It  is  great  and  rapid  as  regards  number,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  Muslim  missionary,  from  the  very 
first  profession  of  the  convert’s  belief,  acts  practically 
on  those  principles  regarding  the  equality  and  brother- 
hood of  all  believers  before  God,  which  Islam  shares  with 
Christianity.” 

With  Sir  Bartle  Frere  agrees  another  observer,  who 
emphasises  that  neither  colour  nor  race  prejudices  a 
negro  in  any  way  in  the  eyes  of  his  new  co-religionists. 
Muhammad  fancied  from  the  story  of  Moses’  hand  becom- 
ing white  that  he  was  a negro,  and  he  himself  took  a 
negro  as  his  constant  personal  attendant.  Hear  also  a 
negro  on  the  difi:erence  of  the  two  missions  to  his  people  : 
“ While  Christian  missions  put  off  indefinitely  the  establish- 
ment of  a native  pastorate,  the  Muslim  priests  penetrate 
into  Africa,  find  ready  access  to  the  pagans,  and  win 
them  for  Islam.  The  result  is  that  the  negroes  to-day 
regard  Islam  as  the  religion  for  blacks,  and  Christianity 
as  that  for  whites.  Christianity,  say  they,  certainly 
invites  the  negro  to  salvation,  but  assigns  him  a place 
so  low  that  he  is  discouraged,  and  says,  I have  no  part 
nor  lot  in  this  affair.  Islam  calls  the  negro  to  salvation 
and  says  to  him,  It  depends  simply  on  yourself  to  climb 


142 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


as  liigli  as  possible.  So  tbe  enthusiastic  negro  gives  himself 
body  and  soul  to  serve  this  rehgion.”  ^ 

The  area  where  blacks  and  whites  meet  is  not  great ; 
but  if  the  colour  hne  is  really  obhterated,  the  Mushm 
has  a great  advantage  not  possessed  by  the  Christian 
missionary.  Yet  the  most  recent  books  on  Islam,  re- 
porting a conference  at  Cairo  attended  by  representatives 
of  every  Mushm  field,  are  absolutely  silent  on  this  point ; 
and  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred  that  no  great  advantage 
is  really  experienced.  Indeed,  the  lot  of  women  is  not 
enviable  among  Mushms.  A pagan  negress  has  no  special 
disabihty  as  compared  with  her  negro  husband.  But  if 
Islam  comes  to  the  village  she  finds  herself  at  once  thrust 
into  seclusion  and  suspected ; her  husband  may  have 
opened  to  him  a career  of  travel  and  learning — she  is  a 
prisoner,  and  kept  ignorant  as  a child.  Here  Christianity 
can  come  with  great  opportunity. 

Examine  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  Islam.  Muhammad 
prided  himself  on  the  hberty  into  which  he  called  his 
followers,  freeing  them  from  the  tyranny  of  priesthood. 
But  he  himself  laid  the  foundations  of  an  equally  objection- 
able tyranny,  or  rather  he  took  it  over  from  the  Jews, 
ready  built.  They  had  their  scribes,  their  rabbis,  who 
in  our  Lord’s  day  were  powerful  enough  to  contest  the 
leadership  of  the  priests,  and  who  saw  the  power  of  those 
priests  disappear  in  a generation.  Then  they  went  on 
developing  their  traditions  about  the  Law,  till  the  really 
influential  and  ruling  literature  of  the  Jews  is  not  the 
1 Journal  de$  Missio7is  Evangdiques  Paris,  1888,  p.  207. 


Mullah  or  Bible 


143 


Law,  but  the  Misbna  and  the  Talmud,  the  sediment  of 
traditional  exposition.  Exactly  the  same  thing  has 
happened  in  Muhammad’s  revised  version  of  Judaism. 
What  is  the  good  of  boasting  that  no  priests  exist,  if 
authorised  expositors  of  the  Law  thrust  in  on  every  hand  ? 
Granted  that  a Muslim  may  pray  alone,  may  marry,  bury, 
so  the  enthusiasts  of  Islam  pride  themselves  ; but  he 
dare  not  think  for  himself,  interpret  the  Qur’an  for  him- 
self ; no  Catholic  can  be  bound  by  straiter  bonds  than  is 
he.  And  wherein  is  the  negro  benefited  if  he  exchange 
the  tyranny  of  medicine-man  and  priest  for  the  tyranny 
of  mullah  and  law-student  ? Now  the  Cathohc  missionary, 
indeed,  has  nothing  better  to  ofier  ; but  a Protestant  at 
least  does  not  fear  to  translate  the  Bible  into  any  dialect 
the  poor  pagan  can  understand,  and  put  it  into  his  hand 
for  himself  to  interpret  and  act  upon.  And  more  than 
one  missionary  has  owned  that  the  untutored  African  has 
instantly  accepted  and  acted  on  commands  that  the 
sophisticated  conscience  of  Europe  has  discarded,  and  so 
has  opened  up  anew  the  value  of  God’s  promises. 

Quit  now  this  whole  subject,  what  Islam  offers  and 
demands,  and  consider  another  important  point : How 
the  message  is  delivered — missionary  methods. 

Two  have  been  tried  by  Muslim  and  Christian  alike. 
Force,  and  Persuasion.  At  the  present  day  force  is  nearly 
obsolete  in  Africa.  Outside  Morocco  hardly  an  acre  is 
under  purely  Mushm  rule,  and  no  Christian  Power  uses 
the  arm  of  the  State  to  propagate  Christianity.  We 


144 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


have  therefore  to  consider  only  the  peaceful  methods 
employed.  Islam  has  three  principal  sets  of  agents : 
traders  to  leaven  the  towns,  professional  missionaries, 
schoolmasters. 

Every  mosque  in  Africa  has  its  school  attached ; all 
education  is  distinctly  rehgious,  designed  to  confirm  in 
the  faith  and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  a subsequent  theo- 
logical or  missionary  training  in  special  cases.  Everywhere 
the  Qur’an  is  the  text-book,  and  aU  learning  is  grafted 
on  to  it  in  some  way — much  as  the  ignorant  mediaeval 
monks  went  to  the  Latin  Bible  for  their  astronomy  and 
geography,  not  to  the  professional  astronomers  of  the 
East,  or  the  text-books  of  Ptolemy  and  Hipparchus ; till 
a learned  Irish  missionary  of  the  ninth  century,  teaching 
that  the  earth  was  a globe,  was  rudely  rebuked  as  a heretic 
by  an  ignorant  Pope.  Stdl,  even  the  Qur’an  offers  informa- 
tion to  the  African  negro,  and  its  arrival  marks  a rise  in 
the  social  scale.  This  is  markedly  to  be  seen  on  the 
Guinea  coast,  where  for  four  centuries  the  natives  have 
known  Christians  chiefly  as  slavers.  Their  state  is  degraded 
in  the  extreme,  and  Christian  traders  have  worsened  it 
by  their  offer  of  spirits  and  gunpowder.  But  passing 
from  the  coast  a httle  inland,  a civilising  influence 
is  met,  the  tribes  seem  to  be  self-respecting,  clothed,  and 
in  their  right  minds  : Islam  has  come  to  them. 

It  is  of  course  to  be  said  that  Christian  missionaries 
have  been  at  work  educationally  as  in  other  ways.  But 
Wameck  says  that  our  subjects  of  instruction  are  too 
many,  and  the  aims  too  high,  while  the  almost  exclusive 


Traders  as  Missionaries 


14S 


use  of  English  perverts  and  denationalises  the  people.  In 
contrast  with  this,  the  Muslim,  with  a lower  ideal,  generally 
attains  it.  And  we  have  to  regret  that  the  quahty  of 
the  Christian  converts  is  decidedly  poor  ; when  Guinea 
Christians  were  taken  to  the  Congo  to  help  to  inaugurate 
a new  mission,  it  proved  to  the  advantage  of  the  work  to 
return  them  speedily.  So  it  would  appear  that  in  our 
educational  pohcy  we  absolutely  have  something  to  learn 
from  the  Mushm. 

It  wiU  be  asked.  Who  first  breaks  the  ground  for  Islam  ? 
The  answer  is,  the  Muslim  trader  and  settler.  The 
European  trader  on  the  coast  is  seldom  viewed  in  a 
missionary  light,  and  seldom  deserves  to  be.  But  the 
Mushm  trader  is  of  another  stamp  ; see  an  ideal  picture  of 
his  doings  drawn  by  T.  W.  Arnold.  His  very  profession 
brings  him  into  close  and  immediate  contact  with  those 
he  would  convert,  and  disarms  any  possible  suspicion  of 
sinister  motives.  Such  a man,  when  he  enters  a pagan 
village,  soon  attracts  attention  by  his  frequent  ablutions 
and  regularly  recurring  times  of  prayer  and  prostration 
in  which  he  appears  to  be  conversing  with  some  invisible 
being ; and  by  his  very  assumption  of  intelhgence  and 
moral  superiority  he  commands  the  respect  and  confidence 
of  the  heathen  people,  to  whom  at  the  same  time  he  shows 
himself  ready  and  wiUing  to  communicate  his  high  principles 
and  knowledge.  He  teaches  the  people  new  songs  in 
which  his  doctrines  and  practices  are  insinuated.  He 
marries  freely,  and  begets,  perhaps,  even  more  freely,  and 
all  his  children  are  trained  in  his  faith.  And  so  before 


146 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


long  tlie  way  is  paved  for  tlie  amateur  to  call  in  tlie  pro- 
fessional missionary.  While  this  picture  is  quite  probably 
overcoloured,  it  strikes  us  as  most  attractive  and  most 
possible.  Indeed,  we  know  that  in  some  respects  this  is 
the  way  in  which  our  own  faith  spread  throughout  the 
Roman  Empire  for  more  than  a century. 

But  now  we  must  observe  the  wholesale  training  of  men 
who  are  to  be  professional  missionaries,  devoting  their 
whole  lives  deliberately  to  the  spread  of  Islam.  Of  these 
there  are  two  sorts,  the  university  men  from  Cairo,  the 
seminary  men  from  the  desert. 

At  the  great  mosque  in  Cairo  is  a Muslim  university,  to 
which  students  flock  from  all  the  Muhammadan  world, 
including  Africa.  An  enthusiast  claimed  that  in  1884 
more  than  twelve  thousand  men  were  on  the  rolls  ; but  a 
cold-blooded  cyclopaedia  says  that  this  number  includes 
all  the  aflhliated  training  colleges  and  professional  schools, 
so  that  only  about  two  thousand  are  really  in  attendance. 
From  the  hundreds  who  graduate  hence  every  year, 
instructed  in  the  Qur’an,  grammar,  prosody,  cahgraphy, 
history,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  above  all  in  commentary 
and  traditions,  many  go  back  to  spread  their  faith. 

A more  modern  movement  is  outranking  this  plan. 
Seventy  years  ago  it  originated  in  Morocco,  and  after  being 
for  awhile  centred  at  Jaghbub,  in  Tripoh,  it  is  now  directed 
from  the  oasis  of  Kufra,  more  to  the  south,  whence  the 
Sahara  is  in  reahty  ruled.  A dehberate  attempt  is  being 
made  to  undo  all  reform  of  Islam  by  internal  evolution, 
and  to  resist  any  change  from  without ; and  the  programme 


The  Sanest  Movement 


147 


is  to  extend  the  old  original  doctrine  of  the  prophet, 
by  peaceful  means,  if  these  suffice,  but  if  not,  by  any 
means.  Strange  to  say,  the  objections  of  the  prophet  to 
monasticism  have  been  toned  down,  and  a community 
life  is  adopted.  “ Convents  of  the  order  are  to  be  found 
not  only  aU  over  the  north  of  Africa  from  Egypt  to  Morocco, 
throughout  the  Sudan,  in  Senegambia  and  Somaliland, 
but  members  of  the  order  are  to  be  found  also  in  Arabia, 
Mesopotamia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Malay  archipelago.” 
All  adherents  are  expected  to  give  a part  of  their  income 
to  the  funds  of  the  society,  and  many  devote  themselves 
entirely  to  the  reform  and  propagation  of  Islam.  More 
than  a hundred  and  twenty  seminaries  exist,  and  from 
the  largest  hundreds  ot  missionaries  go  forth  yearly  to 
spread  the  original  teaching  of  Muhammad,  and  to  incite 
to  absolute  cessation  of  intercourse  with  all  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians. Slaves  are  often  bought  from  a pagan  tribe, 
trained,  and  sent  back  to  win  their  people.  An  annual 
Chapter  is  held  at  which  progress  is  reported  and  new 
plans  are  laid. 

This  movement  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  modern 
days,  quite  as  marked  as  the  rise  of  Protestant  missions 
some  forty  years  earlier,  and  apparently  almost  as  success- 
ful. To  consider  the  rehgious  prospects  of  the  world 
without  studying  this  and  gauging  its  future,  is  to  eliminate 
one  of  the  chief  factors.  And  we  have  to  consider  with  deep 
regret  that  this  arose  and  developed  on  what  was  once  Chris- 
tian ground ; that  if  Christians  had  not  spht  into  many 
sects,  hating  one  another,  Islam  never  would  have  found  an 


148 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


entrance  to  this  land  of  religious  enthusiasm,  and  the  energy 
now  spent  in  its  cause  might  have  been  used  for  Christ. 

We  must  confess  when  we  hear  of  this  movement  that 
missionary  zeal  is  intense,  and  that  the  Student  Volun- 
teer Missionary  Union  is  quite  belated  in  comparison 
with  Islam.  Consider  that  many  of  these  are  white 
Muslims — Moors  if  you  wiU,  but  not  Negroes — and  that 
they  have  to  cross  the  desert  for  their  work  among  a 
lower  race.  Their  devotion  may  put  us  to  shame.  How 
few  of  our  Seminaries  put  foreign  missions  in  the  very 
forefront  of  their  purpose  ! Yet  with  these  Sanusis  every 
one  of  their  colleges  is  such  a foreign  missionary  seminary ; 
and  twenty  years  ago  a German  traveller  declared  that 
from  Tripoh  alone  more  than  a thousand  workers  go 
annually.  Sell  avers  that  the  Muslim  is  always  proud 
of  his  religion,  proud  to  spread  it.  Even  the  Christian 
missionary  may  at  times  adopt  an  apologetic  attitude  for 
his  faith  and  his  calling ; but  the  Christian  trader  is  not 
habitually  proud  of  his  creed,  and  therein  we  can  see  one 
great  source  of  weakness. 

The  problem  of  Africa  thus  proves  to  be  mainly  the 
problem  of  Islam.  The  low  pagan  rehgions  have  no  power 
of  resistance,  and  the  question  of  their  future  may  almost 
be  reduced  to  the  alternative.  Shall  they  become  Muslim 
or  Christian  ? Of  course,  here  as  elsewhere,  it  is  true  that 
they  deeply  colour  the  rehgion  that  supplants  them  ; that 
African  Islam  is  not  the  faith  of  Muhammad,  and  Ethiopian- 
ism  is  not  the  primitive  Gospel  of  Christ.  But  waiving  this 


Kelative  Progress 


149 


point,  and  viewing  tlie  great  rival  missions,  we  have  to  ask 
as  to  their  relative  position,  the  statics  of  the  problem ; and 
as  to  their  relative  progress,  the  dynamics  of  the  problem. 

The  actual  state  of  things  is  disconcerting  in  the  ex- 
treme. If  the  total  population  of  Africa  be  estimated  at 
164  millions,  according  to  the  Statesman’s  Yearbook  for 
1905,  we  find  from  the  Cairo  Conference  of  1906  that 
the  Muslim  share  is  about  59  millions,  or  36  per  cent, 
of  the  whole.  The  estimates  for  the  African  Churches  in 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia  vary  widely ; taking  the  most  san- 
guine, that  of  Professor  Schmidt,  they  have  not  10  millions, 
while  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches  add  another 
five,  all  together  about  5^  per  cent.  Muslims  outnumber 
Christians  more  than  six  to  one. 

How  about  the  advance  of  the  two  faiths  ? The  Abys- 
sinians  and  Copts  may  be  simply  ignored,  for  they  make 
no  effort  at  propagation.  The  progress  of  Cathohcs  is 
not  easy  to  state,  but  as  Beach  finds  that  the  total  con- 
stituency of  Protestant  missions  is  only  576,530  for  ninety- 
five  societies,  we  shall  take  a roseate  view  if  we  double 
this  and  say  that  1,250,000  is  the  total  under  Christian 
influence.  Over  against  this  we  hear  from  travellers  that 
Islam  is  advancing  constantly  and  rapidly  in  the  West, 
and  of  whole  nations  being  won  over  in  a few  years.  Dr. 
W.  K.  Miller  thinks  that  this  progress  is  real  and  hkely 
to  increase,  and  warns  us  that  “ a peaceful  Islam  rmder 
British  rule,  free  to  proselytise  while  Christian  missionaries 
are  hampered,  wiU  be  a greater  power  ” than  Islam  under 
Pagan  or  Muslim  rule.  This  leads  us  to  the  political 


150 


The  Struggle  for  Africa 


aspect.  Tlie  Cairo  Conference  complained  tliat  European 
governments  cringe  to  Muslim  turbulence  and  arrogance, 
withholding  fair  play  from  Christian  missions.  It  would 
seem  that  some  observers  think  the  Mushm  force  is  not 
growing  naturally,  but  has  outside  stimulus.  More  than 
three-quarters  of  the  African  Muslims  are  under  the  rule 
of  France  and  Britain  ; and  a Pan-Islam  movement  is 
growing,  with  more  than  the  benevolent  neutrahty  of 
Germany.  The  experience  of  the  past  shows  that  govern- 
ments have  never  allowed  rehgious  considerations  to 
check  their  plans  for  aggrandisement,  and  that  Germany 
is  no  more  scrupulous  than  have  been  others.  Keal 
Christian  workers  can  but  pray  that  this  obstacle  be  not 
wantonly  thrown  in  their  path. 

A land  of  dreams  and  sleep ; a poppied  land  ! 

With  skies  of  endless  calm  above  her  head. 

The  drowsy  warmth  of  summer  noonday  shed 
Upon  her  hills,  and  silence  stem  and  grand 
Throughout  her  desert’s  temple-burying  sand. 

Respect  the  dream  that  builds  her  fallen  throne. 

And  soothes  her  to  oblivion  of  her  woes. 

Hush  ! for  she  does  but  sleep,  she  is  not  dead ; 

Action  and  Toil  have  made  the  world  their  own ; 

But  she  hath  built  an  altar  to  Repose. 

Taylor. 

When  over  Niger’s  banks  is  breaking 
Another  century’s  morning  star. 

The  newborn  Phoenix,  first  awaking 
Expands  his  purple  pinions  far  ! 

He  gazes,  from  the  mountain  towers 
On  which  his  ancient  eyrie  stands. 

Towards  east  and  west,  o’er  cinnamon  towers 
And  o’er  the  desert’s  arid  sands. 


Feeiligeath. 


EXPANSION  IN  AMERICA 


Desire  of  every  land  ! the  nations  came 
And  worshipped  at  His  feet,  all  nations  came. 
Flocking  hke  doves : Columbia’s  painted  tribes, 

That  from  Magellan  to  the  Frozen  bay, 

Beneath  the  Arctic,  dwelt,  and  drank  the  tides 
Of  Amazona,  prince  of  earthly  streams  ; 

Or  slept  at  noon  beneath  the  giant  shade 
Of  Andes’  mount : or,  roving  northwards,  heard 
Niagara  sing,  from  Erie’s  billow  down 
To  Frontenao,  and  hunted  thence  the  fur 
To  Labrador.  Pollok. 

Where  the  remote  Bermudas  ride, 

In  ocean’s  bosom  unespied. 

From  a small  boat  that  rowed  along, 

The  hstening  winds  received  this  song : — 

“ What  should  we  do  but  sing  His  praise 
That  led  us  through  the  watery  maze  ? 

And  in  these  rocks  for  us  did  frame 
A temple  where  to  sound  His  name  ? 

Oh,  let  our  voice  His  praise  exalt 
Till  it  arrive  at  Heaven’s  vault, 

Which  thence  perhaps  rebounding  may 
Echo  beyond  the  Mexique  bay.” 

Andrew  Marvel. 


IV 


Expansion  in  America 

Missions  passed  into  a new  phase  with,  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  ancient  Church  of  Asia  had  been 
so  stunned  by  the  ravages  of  the  Tatars  and  by 
the  brutality  of  its  Muslim  overlords,  that  it  lay  in  a 
comatose  condition,  and  could  not  be  looked  to  for  renewed 
efforts.  The  Churches  of  Africa  were  all  but  extinct, 
again  owing  to  the  stern  rule  of  Islam  that  propagandism 
was  a capital  crime.  Only  in  Europe  seemed  there  any 
hope,  but  here  the  remaining  pagan  nations  were  rang- 
ing themselves  under  the  Cross,  while  in  Spain  the  last 
crusades  were  driving  forth  the  Moor  with  his  Qur’an. 
Thus  an  intense  zeal  for  missions  was  developed,  and  no 
sooner  was  the  Peninsula  won  for  Christendom  again, 
than  the  Spaniards  found  a new  sphere  open  to  them 
across  the  ocean.  Instantly  the  Pope  reminded  them 
of  their  religious  duties,  and  the  famous  Bull  of  1493  a.d. 
enjoined  the  steady  dispatch  of  missionaries  to  the  natives. 

The  name  of  Bernard  Boil,  the  Benedictine  monk, 
deserves  mention  as  the  first  apostle  to  the  New  World ; 
but  the  work  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  friars,  and 
at  Darien  a Franciscan  became  the  first  bishop.  Already 

163 


154 


Expansion  in  America 


they  had  a glorious  record  of  mission  work  attempted 
among  the  Buddhists  and  Muslims  and  Confucians ; now 
they  heroically  went  out  to  temper  the  greed  of  the  soldiers 
of  fortune,  and  to  take  the  tidings  of  a Saviour  to  the 
races  that  had  so  long  walked  in  darkness.  A century 
and  more  passed  before  the  Protestants  followed  feebly 
in  their  wake,  and  another  before  the  United  Brethren 
really  entered  the  field.  Thus  the  natives  have  had 
Christianity  presented  to  them  in  various  forms ; by 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French  ; by  English  and  Dutch  ; 
by  Moravians  and  Germans. 

To  North  America  the  most  important  immigrants  were 
English,  and  the  leading  religious  motive  that  brought  them 
was  not  to  convert  the  native,  but  to  find  a refuge  from 
persecution  that  they  might  worship  God  in  their  own  way. 
In  1618  A.D.  some  members  of  a church  in  Southwark  and 
Amsterdam  settled  in  Chesapeake  Bay ; a few  years  later 
some  Nottingham  men  settled  at  Plymouth,  and  soon  the 
coast  was  dotted  with  men  eager  to  shake  ofi  the  restraints 
of  home,  and  begin  afresh  with  the  Bible  in  their  hands. 

Yet  be  it  noted  that  tradition  is  too  strong  thus  to  be 
dismissed.  As  the  yokes  of  Rome  and  Canterbury  were 
broken,  a new  one  forged  at  Geneva  was  gladly  fitted  on 
the  neck.  Only  John  Smyth  had  the  courage  to  inveigh 
against  the  notes  and  glosses  of  the  Genevan  translation, 
and  to  plead  that  the  original  Scriptures  alone  should  be 
the  guide.  Primitive  Christianity  was  not  reproduced, 
only  a late  type  of  European  Christianity  as  remoulded 
by  Calvin. 


Jesuit  Missions 


155 


European  Christianity  alone  survived,  for  the  original 
Asiatic  and  the  early  African  had  disappeared.  In  the 
New  World  European  Christianity  of  two  leading  types 
had  a grand  opportunity.  The  Eoman  type  is  the  more 
interesting  in  its  work  among  the  aboriginal  Amerinds ; 
the  Teutonic  type  in  its  own  evolution  among  white  men 
transplanted  into  a new  environment.  These  two  themes 
can  be  studied  separately. 

I.  Missions  to  Natives 

On  the  western  slope  of  these  mountains 
Dwells  in  his  little  village  the  Black  Robe  chief  of  the  mission. 
Much  he  teaches  the  people,  and  tells  them  of  Mary  and  Jesus; 
Loud  laugh  their  hearts  with  joy,  and  weep  with  pain,  as  they 
hear  him.  Longfellow. 

In  the  temperate  zones  we  find  two  most  splendid 
mission  fields,  which  have  been  adorned  by  heroes  of 
different  nations.  Our  usual  Church  Histories  are  very 
reticent  about  mission  matters  ; Protestant  histories  are 
too  often  timid  in  dealing  with  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
after  the  Reformation  confine  themselves  largely  to  Pro- 
testant countries.  So  it  happens  that  we  are  largely 
ignorant  about  Catholic  propaganda  after  the  fifteenth 
century ; and  if  we  know  little  of  the  Jesuit  at  our  side, 
we  know  really  nothing  of  his  achievements  in  the 
heathen  world.  His  work  in  Europe  has  been  so  re- 
actionary, that  we  hardly  remember  there  was  once  a 
countervailing  side  abroad ; that  men  like  Anchieta  in 
Brazil  were  doing  good  work  among  the  heathen  which 


156 


Expansion  in  America 


deserves  admiration  and  study.  Of  course,  even  at  the 
beginning,  Jesuit  missions  were  not  faultless ; but  we 
have  met  no  faultless  missions  at  all : it  is  also  sadly 
true  that  some  of  these  missions  degenerated,  and  were 
marked  by  grave  errors,  which  it  will  be  our  duty  to 
note  presently  : but  meanwhile  let  us  not  overlook  the 
fact  that  in  the  first  age  of  their  existence,  there  were 
Jesuits  whose  missionary  fervour  and  wisdom  have  drawn 
from  a critic,  generally  hostile,  the  admission  that  when 
toiling  among  the  teeming  millions  of  Hindustan  and 
China,  labouring  amongst  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois  of 
North  America,  governing  and  civilising  the  natives  of 
Brazil  and  Paraguay,  the  Jesuit  appears  ahke  devoted, 
indefatigable,  cheerful,  and  worthy  of  hearty  admiration 
and  respect.  From  the  evidence  for  this  verdict,  often 
given  by  those  who  were  to  some  extent  rivals  of  the 
missionaries,  let  us  take  the  story  of  Paraguay. 

When  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  divided  South 
America  between  them,  they  “ swarmed  into  the  New 
World,  carrying  with  them  all  the  vices  of  the  Old,  and 
adding  to  them  the  hcentiousness  and  cruelty  which  the 
freedom  of  a new  country  and  the  hopes  of  speedy  riches 
bring  with  them.”  ^ The  older  orders  of  friars  were 
not  numerous  or  ardent  enough  to  cope  with  these 
diflS.culties  ; and  the  new  Company  of  Jesus  speedily  threw 
itself  into  the  work,  inspired  by  the  Ulustrious  example 
of  Francis  Xavier.  While  it  was  generalled  by  a Spaniard, 

^ Weld,  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  Portuguese 
Dominions,  p.  24. 


Instructions  to  Missionaries 


157 


yet  it  was  two  Italians  who  took  up  the  task  in  these 
Spanish  provinces,  and  devised  the  method  that  yielded 
such  splendid  results.  They  saw  that  it  was  needful  to 
isolate  the  Indian  converts  from  the  enslaving  Spaniards, 
and  to  cast  over  them  the  shield  of  royal  protection.  On 
a tributary  of  the  Parana,  1300  miles  above  Buenos  Ayres, 
they  established  the  settlement  of  Loreto  in  1610  a.d. 
The  year  may  recall  the  beginnings  of  colonisation  in 
the  far  distant  North.  At  Annapohs,  in  Nova  Scotia,  the 
French  had  for  five  years  maintained  the  first  settlement 
that  endured,  and  had  been  puzzled  by  evidences  that 
other  Christians — Irish  or  Norse  ? — ^had  long  preceded 
them ; Kaleigh  had  failed  to  settle  in  Maine,  but  James- 
town was  proving  more  permanent  in  Virginia ; Hudson 
had  newly  discovered  the  Bay  and  the  River  that  immor- 
tahse  his  name  ; in  Holland  the  Baptists  were  just  emerg- 
ing from  the  chrysalis,  alongside  the  future  Pilgrim 
Fathers  ; and  at  Penobscot  the  Jesuits  were  preparing  to 
evangelise  the  redskins  of  the  North. 

In  this,  their  heroic  age,  they  combined  on  the  mission 
field  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent  with  the  harmlessness  of 
the  dove  ; and  well  it  would  be  for  us  if  we  pondered 
over  their  methods.  Listen  to  these  instructions  given 
to  a Scotsman  : — 

“ First  of  all,  attend  to  your  own  life,  and  see  that  at 
all  times  and  in  all  things,  it  commends  your  message. 
Master  the  language  of  the  people  you  work  among. 
Associate  yourself  with  one  or  two  others ; under  no  cir- 
cumstances let  a station  be  undermanned.  Choose  a site 


158 


Expansion  in  America 


as  remote  as  possible  from  tbe  movements  of  commerce 
and  politics ; for  tbe  votaries  of  these  seldom  show 
Christianity  to  advantage,  and  may  easily  distract  the 
people  you  aim  at.  Plan  out  the  whole  station,  far  in 
advance  of  immediate  needs,  so  that  it  shall  be  orderly 
and  not  a chance  growth.  Secure  sufibcient  land  for 
separate  and  for  common  needs.  Let  each  be  self-con- 
tained and  self-supporting,  with  every  needful  trade 
represented.  Let  the  church  be  the  most  conspicuous 
building,  and  the  premises  for  the  workers  be  central. 
Avoid  all  danger  of  slander  by  living  a simple  home  hfe, 
supporting  yourself  after  the  initial  stage  by  your  own 
labour,  buying  what  you  need  and  never  begging.  Devote 
yourself,  heart  and  soul,  to  the  work,  training  the  young 
above  all.  When  punishment  is  needful,  do  not  yourself 
inflict  it.  Avoid  entanglement  with  the  secular  side, 
simply  seeing  that  the  native  chief  is  trained  with  a view 
to  his  responsibilities,  then  when  he  is  installed,  let  him 
exercise  them.”  ^ 

Such  were  the  instructions  given  to  the  labourers  in 
South  America,  and  the  methods  actually  adopted  did 
not  differ  widely,  an  Enghsh  Jesuit  thus  describing  what 
really  went  on  : “At  the  blush  of  dawn,  the  children 
of  both  sexes  were  assembled  in  the  church  to  recite  in 
alternate  choirs  the  Christian  doctrine  ; at  sunrise  the 
whole  people  attended  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 
After  the  day’s  work  was  over,  the  sound  of  the  bell  again 
summoned  the  children  to  recite  the  Rosary.  . . . When 

^ Helps,  History  of  the  Spanish  Conquest,  vol.  iv.  p.  414. 


Industrial  Training 


159 


the  missioner  sallied  out  to  make  new  conquests,  lie  was 
attended  by  a band  of  some  thirty  of  his  flock,  eager  to 
join  him  in  bearing  the  good  tidings  to  theii  countrymen. 
These  would  cut  their  way,  hatchet  in  hand,  through  the 
forests,  and  when  they  came  upon  habitations  they  would 
use  all  their  eloquence  to  persuade  the  inmates  of  their 
own  happiness,  and  invite  them  to  cast  in  their  lot  with 
them.  . . . Each  one  had  his  own  little  property,  which 
sufiiced  for  his  support,  and  the  wise  prevision  of  the 
Fathers  took  care  that  there  should  always  be  a common 
stock  from  which  the  needy  could  be  supphed.  ...  As 
there  was  neither  gold  nor  silver  in  the  Reductions,  there 
was  little  incentive  to  avarice  or  its  attendant  quarrels. 
. . . All  the  useful  arts  of  agriculture  and  working  in  wood 
and  metals,  even  to  the  manufacture  of  clocks  and  musical 
instruments,  sculpture  and  gilding,  etc.,  were  taught  them. 
. . . The  forests  around  them  produced  dye-wood,  honey 
and  wax,  while  their  fields  furnished  the  famous  Paraguayan 
grass,  and  their  fiocks  supplied  skins  and  tallow.  In 
order  that  the  simple  Indians  should  receive  the  full  ad- 
vantage of  their  produce,  the  Jesuits  appointed  Procurators 
of  their  own  body  to  manage  the  exchange.  All  was  the 
property  of  the  Indian  community,  for  whose  spiritual 
and  temporal  happiness  the  missionaries  gave  with  joy 
their  labour,  their  sweat,  and  often  their  blood.”  ^ 

These  colonies  had  to  be  defended  against  the  rapacity 
of  European  settlers,  so  both  in  Paraguay  and  Brazil  the 
missionaries  persevered  in  their  humane  efforts,  at  length 
1 Weld,  op.  cit,  pp.  25,  46,  47. 


160 


Expansion  in  America 


winning  royal  orders  that  the  Indians  were  not  to  be 
enslaved,  a measure  that  excited  against  them  the  deadly 
hatred  of  many  greedy  civihans.  As  to  the  quahty  of 
the  work  accomphshed,  abundant  testimonies  are  forth- 
coming. Within  half  a century  the  Bishop  of  Tucaman, 
in  the  modern  Argentine  Republic,  reported  : — 

“ Nothing  stops  them  when  they  are  called — ^neither 
labour,  danger,  health,  nor  expense.  At  appoiated  times, 
always  with  the  orders  of  the  bishop,  and  rendering  to 
him  on  their  return  an  account  of  the  fruits  they  have 
gained,  they  travel  over  the  whole  diocese,  preaching, 
hearing  confessions,  administering  the  sacraments,  checking 
the  licentious,  and  all  this  at  no  small  risk,  often  with 
great  danger,  and  at  their  own  expense.”  Speaking  of 
the  savage  Calchaquis,  ferocious  idolaters  in  a mountainous 
land,  he  continued  : “ These  Fathers  have  learned  the 
language  of  this  people,  with  immense  labour,  and  during 
ten  or  twelve  years  have  hved  among  them  in  two  re- 
sidences, carrying  their  own  wood  and  water,  constantly 
suffering  instdts,  and  often  beaten  with  clubs,  putting  no 
one  to  expense,  with  httle  help  from  the  faithful,  and 
drawing  the  necessaries  of  life  from  their  Colleges.”  ^ 

A generation  later  the  Archbishop  of  La  Plata  echoed : 
“ The  advantages  which  aU  the  people  derive  from  the 
religious  of  the  Holy  Society  of  Jesus,  both  in  temporal 
and  in  spiritual  matters,  is  so  notorious  to  the  whole  world 
that  to  attempt  to  extol  it  would  be  to  do  them  an  injury.”  ^ 
It  may  be  said  that  these  are  partial  reports  of  ecclesi- 
^ Weld,  op.  cit.,  p.  54.  ® Ibid.,  p.  55. 


Myriads  of  Converts 


161 


astics,  so  it  is  well  to  add  the  official  report  of  the  Governor 
of  Paraguay,  who,  after  commending  the  conduct  of  four 
thousand  Christian  Indians  called  out  to  defend  the  country 
against . invasion  through  a tedious  war,  sums  up  : “ All 
this  is  the  fruit  of  the  holy  education  they  have  received 
from  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  of  the  good 
example  they  give,  of  the  great  intelhgence  with  which 
they  have  trained  them  to  perform  the  duties  of  civil 
life,  and  to  fulfil  the  precepts  of  religion  ; instructing  them 
in  a faithful  obedience  to  the  Divine  law  and  to  that  of 
the  King,  at  the  cost  of  such  great  labours  and  fatigues 
sufiered  in  the  apostolic  ministry,  which  they  exercise 
with  such  constancy  to  rescue  them  from  the  errors  of 
paganism  and  a barbarous  idolatry,  and  to  raise  them 
to  the  state  in  which  they  now  are.”  A long  chain  of  wit- 
nesses is  fairly  represented  by  a later  Bishop  of  Tucaman, 
who  describes  seven  Keductions  of  Chiquitos  with  some 
twenty  thousand  Christians,  and  thirty  more  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  Guaranis,  as  renewing 
the  fervour  of  the  primitive  Christians,  a triumph  of  grace, 
and  a trophy  of  the  Cross.^ 

The  Swiss  Sismondi — no  Catholic — says  that  all  over  the 
world  the  contact  of  Enghsh,  Dutch  and  French  races 
with  savages  has  caused  the  latter  to  melt  away  like  wax 
before  a fierce  fire  (which  is  equally  true  of  the  Spaniards 
in  the  West  Indies) ; but  that,  on  the  contrary,  in  the 
missions  of  America,  the  red  race  multiphed  rapidly  under 
the  direction  of  the  Jesuits.^ 

1 Weld,  Of.  cit.,  pp.  51,  58.  * Siatoire  de  France,  vol.  xxix.  p.  64, 

J3 


162 


Expansion  in  America 


One  criticism  has  been  passed  on  this  work  too  often  to 
be  ignored,  that  the  Indians  were  never  trained  to  self- 
management. This  seems  indeed  true ; but  we  ought  in 
fairness  to  recollect  that  no  one  else  dreamed  of  any  such 
training,  and  that  the  redskin  was  regarded  as  necessarily 
to  be  under  white  tutelage.  If  no  vernacular  Bible  was 
offered  them,  this  was  ordy  the  settled  plan  of  the  Cathohc 
Church  ; but  we  may  wonder  why  no  effort  was  made  to 
train  a native  ministry,  tiU  we  reflect  that  at  least  this  was 
not  done  elsewhere,  the  precedents  of  an  earlier  age  being 
in  this  respect  lamentably  neglected.  On  the  general 
accusation  that  the  Indians  were  kept  as  great  children, 
Sismondi  retorts  that  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
Indians  were  converted  into  so  many  tigers  by  the  Spanish, 
Portuguese  and  French.  And  this  is  fuUy  confirmed  by  a 
modern  resident  in  Brazil,  who  declares  that  the  average 
native  when  once  wrought  up  is  more  hke  a wild  animal 
than  a human  being,  as  the  mixture  of  the  black,  white, 
and  red  races  has  produced  a terrible  type.^ 

In  North  America  the  work  was  prosecuted  at  first  by 
such  heroic  souls  as  Marquette  and  other  French,  based 
upon  Canada  ; then  by  the  Jesuits  and  Franciscans  in 
California.  While  every  Spanish  ship  to  the  New  World 
had  to  carry  out  some  priests  or  friars,  very  few  Protestants 
went  beyond  pious  intentions  in  this  matter,  chiefly  caring 
for  their  own  needs.  Eliot,  Eoger  Williams,  and  David 
Brainerd  called  forth  really  no  followers.  By  the  time 
that  a sense  of  this  duty  was  borne  in  on  the  conquering 
1 Glass,  Through  the  Heart  of  Brazil,  p.  81, 


Eskimos  and  Fuegians 


163 


white  man,  the  redskin  was  being  ousted  and  becoming 
unimportant  in  numbers.  To-day  it  is  supposed  that 
only  about  three  himdred  and  fifty  thousand  Amerinds 
are  left  in  the  continent,  of  whom  many  are  pagan,  still 
practising  their  weird  religious  dances.  Home  mission 
work  among  them  is  prosecuted  chiefly  on  industrial  and 
educational  fines. 

The  Eskimos  have  been  approached  by  the  Moravians 
and  Danes,  and  more  lately  by  the  Labrador  Medical 
Mission.  Their  wandering  habits  make  them  difficult  to 
deal  with ; the  hard  fife  accustoms  them  to  kill  off  in- 
cumbrances such  as  the  aged,  the  sick,  the  infants,  so  soon 
as  famine  sets  in ; they  seek  to  redress  the  balance  by 
polygamy.  In  these  respects  there  is  ample  scope  for  the 
social  reformer,  while  on  the  religious  side  there  are 
equally  serious  difficulties  to  encounter.  Witchcraft  is 
believed  in,  and  the  Angakoks  wield  much  authority  by 
their  supposed  possession  of  supernatural  powers.  Yet 
the  missionaries  can  show  results,  though  it  must  be  owned 
that  Christianity  has  never  struck  root  so  deeply  that 
the  European  gardeners  can  withdraw  from  caring  for  it. 
The  labours  of  the  doctors  along  the  Labrador  coast  are 
most  heroic,  and  none  the  less  praiseworthy  in  that  they 
devote  themselves  to  a dying  race  which  can  never  figure 
largely  in  the  world.  At  the  other  end  of  the  continent 
are  to  be  fotmd  Euegians  who  were  long  supposed  to  be 
irretrievably  debased.  Darwin  marvelled  that  they  coidd 
be  regarded  as  fellow-creatures  or  inhabitants  of  the  same 
world ; yet  he  lived  to  acknowledge  that  Christians 


164 


Expansion  in  America 


had  raised  them  and  discovered  the  soul  ready  for  a 
Saviour. 

If  such  be  the  condition  of  things  in  the  extremities, 
another  brief  glance  may  be  cast  when  we  reach  the  tropics, 
and  note  the  remains  of  certain  uncivihsed  tribes  there. 
F.  C.  Glass  has  lately  pioneered  through  the  district  he 
writes  about,  and  reports  ; — 

“ If  you  take  a map  of  South  America,  and  placing  one 
point  of  your  compass  where  the  longitudinal  and  lati- 
tudinal hnes  intersect  at  fifty-five  degrees  by  ten  degrees, 
and  you  stretch  the  other  point  five  degrees  and  strike 
the  circle,  it  will  give  you  an  area  three  times  the  size  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  a huge  territory  which,  with 
the  exception  of  a thin  fringe  of  civilisation  at  the  extreme 
east,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tocantins,  is  wholly  dominated 
by  various  tribes  of  redskins  in  a purely  primitive  state  ; 
and  if  some  of  these  tribes  have  been  broken  in  spirit  by 
fierce  inter-tribal  wars,  by  bloody  raids  by  merciless  ad- 
venturers, or  equally  cruel  military  expeditions  as  acts 
of  vengeance  or  in  the  name  of  progress,  it  is  true  that 
others  of  these  tribes  retain  their  old  fierce  and  warlike 
characteristics,  and  are  unapproachable  and  almost  impreg- 
nable in  their  forest  fastnesses,  where  white  man’s  foot 
has  never  trod : for  except  the  courses  of  the  big  rivers 
Tocantins  and  Araguay,  this  country  is  an  unknown  land, 
and  occupies  a blank  space  on  the  map  of  South  America. 

“ It  is  very  difficult  to  estimate  the  numbers  of  these 
Indians,  there  being  no  reliable  statistics  at  aU  ; but  it  will 
be  perfectly  safe  to  say  they  number  hundreds  of  thousands, 


Heathenism  in  Hayti 


165 


quite  cut  ojS  and,  it  seems,  forgotten  by  the  outside  world. 
There  are  almost  as  many  languages  as  tribes,  their  habits 
and  laws  differ  in  many  respects,  as  also  their  physical 
appearance  generally.  They  have  many  unwritten  laws 
which  govern  their  actions  in  matters  of  death,  birth,  and 
marriage,  the  latter  being  of  remarkably  wise  construction  ; 
and  I think  I can  say  without  hesitation  that  they  are 
generally  much  more  moral  than  their  white  brethren. 
Gospel  work  amongst  these  tribes  could  only  be  undertaken 
in  the  face  of  much  difficulty,  hardship,  and  danger ; but  it 
can  and  must  be  done,  and  we  are  prepared  to  undertake 
it.  These  Indians  are  400  to  500  miles  from  the  nearest 
railway  point,  and  150  miles  from  the  outskirts  of  civilisation, 
in  a country  where  there  are  no  roads,  no  postmen,  no  white 
men,  the  only  means  of  communication  being  the  rivers.” 

While  we  are  thus  unpleasantly  reminded  of  the  neglect 
on  the  mainland,  the  islands  in  the  tropics  show  another 
variety  of  the  story.  In  the  West  Indies,  whence  the 
Spaniards  soon  exterminated  the  natives,  a new  popula- 
tion has  been  imported,  chiefly  of  negroes.  On  some 
islands  they  form  the  majority,  and  in  a few  are  devoid 
of  all  white  environment.  We  have,  then,  a section  of 
Africa,  without  the  rival  power  of  Islam  ; and  the  rites  of 
Obeah  and  Voodoo  are  said  to  be  in  full  swing  in  some 
places.  Baptists  and  Methodists  have  exerted  a generous 
rivalry,  and  nominal  Christianity  is  in  possession  through 
the  archipelago.  But  it  is  painful  to  hear  that  in  Jamaica 
itself  more  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  negroes  are  born  out  of 
wedlock.  While  the  Jamaican  Churches  some  years  ago 


166 


Expansion  in  America 


formed  a union  independent  of  the  home  missionary 
society,  yet  they  do  not  undertake  the  training  of  their 
own  ministers ; and  so  we  dare  not  say  that  Christianity 
has  struck  permanent  root  so  as  to  be  self-sustaining,  even 
in  this  best  evangelised  of  the  negro  islands. 

These  West  Indian  islands  were  the  first  part  of  the 
New  World  to  feel  the  impact  of  Europe,  and  the  mainland 
to  the  west  and  south  came  next.  Here  flourished  two 
great  civilisations,  Mexico  and  Peru,  both  boasting  religions 
strongly  entrenched  in  the  hearts  of  the  peoples.  Prescott 
has  made  us  famihar  with  the  story  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, Avith  its  prompt  destruction  of  the  temples,  its 
stopping  of  the  heathen  sacrifices,  its  massacres  of  the 
priests.  As  with  Charles  the  Great  in  Saxony,  troops  of 
missionaries  came  in  the  wake  of  the  soldiers,  and  by 
force  or  persuasion  continued  the  work.  Never  has  there 
been  such  thorough  iconoclasm,  nor  is  it  easy  to  point  to 
any  other  lands  where  a more  complete  conversion  was 
secured  within  a century.  Friars  and  Jesuits  rivalled 
one  another  in  evangehsing  and  catechising ; schools 
were  opened  for  the  children,  and  equipped  with  pictures 
and  catechisms  in  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Mexican,  and  within 
a generation  the  victory  seemed  won.  Yet  even  then  there 
were  misgivings  as  to  the  depth  of  the  work,  and  some  of 
the  missionaries  suspected  “ that  the  concourse  of  the 
Indians  to  the  church  was  more  an  act  of  outward  con- 
formity at  the  command  of  their  chiefs,  in  order  to  deceive 
these,  than  a voluntary  movement  on  the  part  of  the 
people  stirred  to  seek  the  remedy  needed  by  their  souls.” 


Baptized  Heathenism 


167 


If  the  Catholic  historian  Mendieta  is  thus  candid,  we 
need  not  hesitate  to  inquire  further  as  to  the  value  of  these 
conversions.  We  have  often  observed  that  it  is  a regular 
thing  for  the  old  religion  and  the  new  to  interact,  produc- 
ing a blend  which  difiers  in  difierent  places  ; but  nowhere 
is  the  result  more  striking  than  in  these  lands.  It  is 
hardly  unfair  to  say  that  the  old  paganism  has  captured 
Christianity,  and  many  observers  actually  describe  what 
they  see  as  Baptized  Heathenism.  Bead  of  the  sacred  dolls, 
the  religious  dances,  the  processions  of  flagellants,  aU  to 
be  witnessed  to-day  at  many  centres,  and  we  recognise 
clear  survivals  of  what  the  Spaniards  found  four  hundred 
years  ago,  and  adopted  into  the  Christian  worship.  Granted 
that  they  did  something  to  hft  the  tone,  that  they  founded 
the  University  of  Mexico  in  1553  a.d.,  the  oldest  on  these 
continents,  that  they  sought  to  elevate  the  people ; but 
once  the  Spanish  yoke  was  cast  off,  the  native  element 
reasserted  itself,  and  is  in  increasing  vigour  to-day.  In 
the  great  Repubhc  of  Mexico,  38  per  cent,  are  pure 
natives,  and  while  there  are  many  half-breeds,  the 
pure  whites  are  dying  out ; the  very  President  is  of 
pure  Aztec  blood.  The  yoke  of  the  Catholic  Church 
has  been  broken,  and  many  huge  buildings  have  been 
confiscated  for  public  purposes  such  as  education. 
But  while  every  hamlet  has  its  free  public  school, 
while  normal,  industrial,  art,  and  professional  schools 
are  lavishly  provided,  yet  the  teaching  of  religion  in 
them  is  absolutely  prohibited.  This  casts  on  the  mis- 
sionary a heavy  responsibihty,  to  which  the  Protestant 


168 


Expansion  in  America 


world  has  hardly  awakened,  and  the  danger  of  atheism 
is  real  and  growing. 

Take  again  Ecuador,  with  eight  hundred  thousand 
Indians,  and  not  as  many  half-breeds  and  whites.  Twenty 
years  ago,  Curtis  declared  it  to  be  the  only  coimtry  in 
America  where  the  Catholic  Church  survived  as  the 
Spaniards  left  it.^  One-tenth  of  the  people  were  priests 
or  monks  or  nuns,  only  ninety-three  days  in  the  year 
were  unappropriated  as  feasts  or  fasts.  He  declared  it 
was  no  Eepublic,  but  simply  a popish  colony,  every  school 
being  controlled  by  the  Jesuits  or  other  agents  of  the 
Church.  Yet  so  unpopular  or  unsuccessful  was  this 
clerical  rule,  that  75  per  cent,  of  the  births  were  illegitimate. 
If  some  progress  has  been  made  in  political  liberty,  and 
the  Indians  have  been  enfranchised  and  freed  from 
tribute,  yet  the  few  Protestant  visitors  into  the  land 
declare  it  is  a field  crying  for  a real  knowledge  of  Christ. 
In  the  adjoining  country  of  Peru,  where  the  native  popu- 
lation is  57  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  so  exceptional  is  the 
type  of  Christianity,  that  Castells  reports  Catholics  from 
other  lands  are  often  scandalised,  and  prefer  to  worship 
at  Protestant  places.® 

Without  viewing  separately  all  the  modern  republics, 
we  may  note  the  estimates  of  various  missionaries  in 
South  America.  Frederick  Glass  declares  that  the  old 
orthodox  Catholicism  may  be  regarded  as  forming  really 
one  of  the  smallest  rehgious  bodies  on  the  continent ; 

' Capitals  of  Spanish  America,  pp.  306,  334. 

* (Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference,  New  York,  vol.  i.  p.  477. 


Modern  Idolatry 


169 


that  the  country  is  passing  into  the  hands  of  heretics  and 
infidels  ; and  that  it  is  hard  work  now  to  find  recruits  for 
the  Koman  Catholic  clergy.^  Some  details  from  Scottish 
workers  may  make  the  picture  more  vivid  : — 

“ One  of  the  most  celebrated  images  is  the  so-called 
Virgin  of  Luyan,  near  Buenos  Ayres.  Her  history  is 
briefly  this.  Many  years  ago  a caravan  was  proceeding 
up  country.  The  oxen  of  a cart,  on  reaching  a certain 
spot,  refused  to  proceed  any  farther.  The  cause  was  dis- 
covered to  be  a box  that  formed  part  of  their  load.  As 
soon  as  this  was  laid  on  the  ground,  they  would  move  on  ; 
but  the  moment  it  was  replaced  on  the  cart  they  again 
stopped.  On  being  opened,  an  image  of  the  Virgin  was 
found,  and  the  conclusion  arrived  at  was  that  she  desired 
to  remain  there.  There  she  was  allowed  to  establish 
herself,  and  there  she  is  to-day ; whilst  over  her  has  been 
in  process  of  construction  for  many  years  the  largest 
sanctuary  of  South  America.  In  connection  with  image 
worship,  what  are  called  ‘ votos,’  or  vows,  are  used. 
For  example,  a man  suffers  from  rheumatism  in  his  arm. 
His  petition  is  presented  to  a special  saint,  and  he  promises 
that  if  cured  he  will  present  the  saint  with  a silver  arm. 
On  feeling  better,  he  buys  from  the  silversmith  a small 
arm  stamped  in  silver,  takes  it  home  or  to  the  saint’s 
shrine,  and  solemnly  hangs  it  on  the  image  as  a mark  of 
gratitude  from  a faithful  devotee.”  ^ 


^ Through  the  Heart  of  Brazil,  pp.  ii.  98. 

^ Robert  Logan,  of  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance,  Life  of 
Faith,  5 xii.  1906. 


170 


Expansion  in  America 


“ The  priests  as  a class  are  gamblers,  immoral,  ignorant, 
and  trade  upon  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the  people  with 
utter  shamelessness.  They  are  despised  and  distrusted 
by  the  men,  but  have  great  influence  over  the  women, 
and  this  they  use  for  the  basest  purposes.  The  religion 
is  Paganism  masquerading  in  the  garments  of  Christianity. 
The  gods  they  worship  are  miraculous  crosses,  so  called 
relics,  images  of  virgins  and  saints.  Gifts  offered  to  these 
through  the  priest  are  believed  to  purchase  pardon  for 
every  sin,  and  smooth  the  way  to  heaven  in  proportion  to 
their  money  value.  Every  day  is  a saint’s  day.  Children 
are  named  after  the  saint  on  whose  day  they  are  born. 
The  saint  is  set  up  as  the  person’s  special  god,  and  is 
supposed  to  work  miracles,  and  show  special  favour  to 
his  namesake.  Jesus  Christ  is  unknown  as  the  Saviour  of 
sinners.  Moral  purity  does  not  exist.  Marriage  is  con- 
sidered unnecessary.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  births  are 
illegitimate.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  people  cannot  read 
or  write.  The  Government  schools  are  such  centres  of 
immorality  that  parents,  though  living  in  sin  themselves, 
often  refuse  to  send  their  children  to  them.”  ^ 

“ The  whole  mass  of  the  people  are  destitute  of  any 
saving  knowledge  of  God.  The  religion  of  Eome  has 
been  from  the  flrst  an  idolatrous  and  mechanical  one, 
devoid  of  spiritual  life  or  power,  a veritable  cloak  for 
covetousness.  The  Word  of  God  has  not  been  given  to 
the  people  ; but  instead,  a gaudy  ceremonial  of  image 
worship,  combined  wdth  feasts  and  revelries  notorious  for 
^ John  Hay,  of  Edinburgh,  in  The  Christian,  20th  December  1906. 


Failure  of  Catholicism 


171 


their  licentiousness  and  drunkenness.  A debased,  im- 
moral priesthood,  arrogating  to  itself  the  sole  right  of 
mediatorship  between  the  people  and  God,  has  for  genera- 
tions been  selling  in  God’s  name,  but  for  its  own  enrich- 
ment, the  licence  to  indulge  in  any  and  every  form  of 
sin  without  guilt  or  penalty,  so  that  the  public  conscience 
has  been  utterly  deadened  to  all  apprehension  of  sin  as 
God  sees  it.  In  the  light  which  contact  with  the  outer 
world  has  brought  into  the  larger  coast  centres,  numbers 
of  thinking  men  are  awaking  to  the  terrible  evils  of  the 
Romish  system ; but  seeing  these  only  as  they  afiect  them- 
selves, and  not  from  God’s  stand-point,  they  have  sought 
freedom  from  the  yoke  in  open  infidehty  and  denial  of 
God.  Of  late  years  Spirituahsm  has  made  extraordinary 
strides  among  the  more  intelligent  male  portion  of  the 
population,  strides  which  might  and  ought  to  have  been 
made  by  the  Gospel,  but  which,  as  it  is,  have  carried  the 
people  yet  further  from  God,  for  the  soul  which  has  dis- 
carded the  sensual  religion  of  Rome  for  the  satanic 
reahties  of  Spirituahsm  is  ten  times  harder  to  win 
for  Christ.  Thus  where  Romanism  fails  by  reason  of 
the  growing  enhghtenment  of  the  age,  Satan  is  envelop- 
ing the  people  in  this  still  deadher  system,  and  the 
last  state  wiU  be  even  worse  than  the  first,  unless  the 
Gospel  is  heralded  throughout  the  land  before  it  is 
too  late.”  ^ 

It  wiU  be  said  that  these  statements  are  from  Pro- 
testants, even  from  missionary  officials  who  are  naturally 


1 P.  C.  Glass. 


172 


Expansion  in  America 


prejudiced,  so  two  more  testimonies  are  added  from  good 
Catholics.  Father  Weld  in  1877  wrote  about  Brazil, 
and  we  know  that  a history  published  by  a Jesuit  must 
be  approved  on  behalf  of  the  Society.  He  sums  up 
the  conditions  of  Latin  America  in  the  terse  phrase : 
“ Savages  who  know  little  more  of  the  Christian  name 
than  the  vices  of  those  who  profess  it.”  That  is  severe 
enough,  but  it  refers  manifestly  to  the  laity,  and  especially 
to  the  native  Indians.  Hear  another  opinion  as  to  the 
clergy  themselves,  this  time  of  Chile,  supposed  to  be  in 
the  vanguard  of  Latin  America 

“ In  every  diocese  ecclesiastics  break  aU  bounds  and 
dehver  themselves  up  to  manifold  forms  of  sensuality ; 
and  no  voice  is  lifted  up  to  imperiously  summon  pastors 
to  their  duties.  The  clerical  press  casts  aside  all  sense 
of  decency  and  loyalty  in  its  attacks  on  those  who  differ, 
and  lacks  controlling  authority  to  bring  it  to  its  proper 
use.  There  is  assassination  and  calumny,  the  civil  laws 
are  defied,  bread  is  denied  to  the  enemies  of  the  Church, 
and  there  is  no  one  to  interpose.  . . . Prelates,  priests, 
and  other  clergy  are  never  to  be  found  doing  service 
among  the  poor ; they  are  never  in  the  hospital  or  lazar- 
house,  never  in  the  orphan  asylum  or  hospice,  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  afflicted  or  distressed,  or  engaged  in  works 
of  beneficence,  aiding  primary  instruction,  or  found  in 
refuges  or  prisons.”  ^ Is  not  that  a terrible  indictment  1 
No,  terrible  it  is ; but  it  is  no  indictment,  it  is  a verdict, 
and  one  from  which  there  is  no  appeal ; for  to  a Roman 
1 Beach,  Geogra'phy  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions,  p.  126. 


Missions  to  Catholics 


173 


Catholic  the  utterance  is  final : it  is  part  of  an  official 
letter  sent  by  Pope  Leo  only  a few  years  ago. 

Latin  America,  then,  raises  for  us  the  whole  question 
of  missions  in  papal  fields.  We  can  see  that  in  one  great 
respect  the  difficulty  is  the  same  as  in  Mushm  lands  ; 
they  have  received  about  enough  of  the  truth  to  be  in- 
oculated with  it  mildly,  and  to  be  fortified  against  it  in 
an  unadulterated  form.  They  have  the  name  of  Christ, 
but  on  high  authority  they  have  nothing  of  His  spirit. 
Surely,  then,  it  is  as  legitimate  to  spend  strength  on 
ministering  to  these  as  to  any  Muslim  who  indeed  acknow- 
ledges the  one  God  but  refuses  to  listen  to  Jesus  Christ. 
Both  err  in  that  they  will  not  recognise  in  Him  the  one 
Mediator  between  God  and  men  : the  Mushm  leaves  the 
gulf  unbridged,  and  bows  in  distant  awe  before  a God 
with  whom  he  has  no  intercourse  ; the  Roman  Catholic 
hangs  out  over  the  gulf  thousands  of  approaches,  the 
saints,  by  whom  to  draw  near,  while  he  ignores  the  one 
appointed  and  only  Way.  Islam  knows  nothing  of  sin ; 
but  Latin  America  seems  to  regard  it  as  something  that 
is  hcensed  by  the  priests.  Islam  detests  idolatry,  which 
prevails  all  over  the  Southern  continent  under  Catholic 
auspices. 

The  needs  of  these  two  sets  of  people  may  be  slightly 
difierent,  but  their  claims  are  equally  urgent.  To  these 
people  in  darkness  must  be  revealed  the  true  Christ : 
not  the  helpless  Infant  alone,  borne  in  His  mother’s  arms, 
nor  the  dead  corpse  being  borne  to  the  tomb ; but  the 
living  Christ,  who  has  made  full  atonement  on  the  Cross, 


174 


Expansion  in  America 


and  now  eternally  abides  able  to  belp  to  tbe  uttermost 
those  who  draw  near  to  God  through  Him. 

Of  no  fond  relics,  sadly  dear, 

0 Master  ! are  Thine  own  possessed ; 

The  crown  of  thorns,  the  cross,  the  spear, 

The  purple  robe,  the  seamless  vest. 

Nay,  relics  are  for  those  who  mourn 
The  memory  of  an  absent  friend ; 

Not  absent  Thou,  nor  we  forlorn ; — 

“ With  you  each  day  until  the  end.” 

How  are  we  meeting  the  demand  of  South  America  ? 
Only  poorly,  because  of  ignorance  as  to  the  real  paganism, 
or  because  of  reluctance  to  go  where  there  is  at  least  a 
name  to  live.  Except  for  the  Guianas,  where  under 
European  rule  the  Moravians  have  worked  for  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  winning  twenty-eight  thousand  in  the 
Dutch  section  alone,  Protestant  effort  is  recent  and  feeble. 
On  the  mainland  from  Mexico  to  Patagonia,  counting 
every  person  from  outside.  Beach  could  not  number  four 
hundred  and  fifty  men  or  five  hundred  women,  or  four 
hundred  stations  occupied  : and  the  native  constituency, 
adherents  as  well  as  communicants,  he  did  not  venture  to 
put  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  There  is  a good 
civilisation,  and  so  no  need  arises  for  industrial  or  medical 
missions  ; but,  as  in  Mexico  the  government  education  is 
purely  secular,  and  schools  of  South  America  are  declared 
to  be  hotbeds  of  vice,  there  is  evidently  great  opport\inity 
for  real  Christian  education,  which  is  being  ofiered,  especi- 
ally by  Presbyterians  and  Methodists.  And  as  the  Cathohc 
worship  is  mainly  spectacular  or  musical,  appealing  to 


Training  Native  Ministers 


175 


bodily  senses  ratber  tban  to  tbe  mind,  therefore  simple 
Gospel  preaching  is  a novelty,  and  is  as  successful  as  when 
Paul  went  out  to  meet  the  Goliath  of  Greek  paganism, 
with  its  pomp  and  procession  and  ritual,  and  with  the 
simple  Word  of  God  inflicted  a mortal  blow.  Workers 
tell  us  that  farmers  and  artisans  are  the  most  accessible, 
exactly  as  when  Paul  granted  that  not  many  wise  nor 
noble  after  the  flesh  were  called.  Nearly  two  thousand 
natives  are  already  labouring  among  their  fellow-country- 
men ; so  that  the  new  movement  does  not  appear  altogether 
as  an  exotic,  but  as  something  which  is  at  least  becoming 
naturalised. 

This  question  of  a native  ministry  is  one  of  the  most 
searching  tests  for  the  vitahty  of  a church.  We  observed 
that  the  early  Church  in  China  was  staffed  partly  by 
Chinese,  but  partly  by  Persians  ; that  the  early  Church  in 
India  was  staffed  partly  by  Tamils,  but  partly  by  Persians  : 
nor  did  we  find  that  any  proper  arrangements  were  made 
for  local  training.  On  such  a pohcy  the  commentary  is 
that  these  two  Churches,  once  so  promising,  are  now 
represented  by  a handful  of  Christians  in  Cochin.  In 
Persia  itself  there  was  a great  college  at  Edessa,  after- 
wards at  Nisibis ; and,  even  in  the  present  decay,  it  is 
precisely  in  that  district  that  the  persecuted  believers 
hold  on.  Westwards,  the  first  Jewish  missionaries  were 
prompt  to  install  local  elders  in  every  city,  and  ere  long 
there  grew  up  training  colleges  for  native  clergy,  of  which 
the  best  known  were  at  Alexandria,  at  Hippo  under  the 
great  Augustine,  and  in  the  isles  off  the  south  of  France. 


176 


Expansion  in  America 


We  observed  that  the  early  missionaries  to  Ireland  soon 
allied  with  tbe  Druids,  and  that  the  monasteries  became 
founts  of  learning  whence  flowed  forth  streams  to  water 
the  thirsty  soil.  We  saw  in  Britain  the  same  pohcy 
pursued,  Piets  and  Scots  and  Welsh  and  English  all  taught 
and  sent  to  labour  among  their  own  kindred.  And  we 
note  the  corresponding  vitality  of  the  faith  among  our 
people.  In  Africa,  again,  we  regretted  the  enormous 
spread  of  Islam,  but  connect  it  with  the  utihsation  of 
negro  students. 

With  such  examples  before  us,  we  are  bound  to  see  that 
our  missionaries  abroad  now  learn  the  lesson,  and  we 
must  urge  our  mission  boards  to  foster  the  training  of 
a native  ministry,  who  shall  be  prepared  not  only  to 
preach,  but  to  organise,  to  propagate,  to  take  responsi- 
bihty  of  all  kinds,  both  in  thought  and  in  action.  If 
this  be  neglected,  the  native  Church  may  become  parasitic 
on  the  Christians  who  send  the  mission : incapable  pre- 
sently of  rooting  for  itself,  and  assimilating  what  is  good 
in  the  local  soil,  but  imbibing  a foreign  and  perhaps 
unnatural  strength,  and  even  weakening  the  home  Church 
by  preventing  it  going  farther  afield, 

2.  European  Christianity  developing  in  New 
Surroundings 

Religion  stands  on  tiptoe  in  our  land, 

Readie  to  passe  to  the  American  strand. 

Yet  as  the  Church  shall  thither  westward  flie. 

So  Sinne  shall  trace  and  dog  her  instantly : 


Old  Seed  in  New  Soil 


177 


They  have  their  period  also  and  set  times 
Both  for  their  vertuous  actions  and  their  crimes. 

But  where  of  old  the  Empire  and  the  Arts 
Ushered  the  Gospel  ever  in  men’s  hearts, 

Spain  hath  done  one ; when  Arts  perform  the  other. 

The  Church  shall  come,  and  Sinne  the  Church  shall  smother. 
That  when  they  have  accomplished  the  round. 

And  met  in  th’  East  their  first  and  ancient  sound. 

Judgement  may  meet  them  both,  and  search  them  round. 

Heebebt. 

We  come  next  to  consider  European  immigrants  to 
America,  and  the  progress  of  Christianity  among  them. 
It  is  extremely  interesting  to  see  the  difierent  growth 
of  kindred  principles  in  different  surroundings.  For  our 
purpose  it  is  very  necessary  to  notice  that  in  every  move- 
ment there  is  something  permanent  and  essential,  clothed 
in  what  is  merely  local  and  accidental.  When  any  iustitu- 
tion  develops  in  one  place  alone,  the  local  and  accidental 
are  not  recognised  for  what  they  are,  and  may  easily 
harden  till  they  are  confused  with  what  is  essential.  Trans- 
plantation helps  us  to  see  the  difierence,  and  to  dispense 
with  what  is  merely  ephemeral.  Even  as  the  Indian 
peasant  laboriously  takes  up  every  stalk  of  rice  and  sets  it 
afresh  in  a new  place,  replanting  twice  or  thrice  to  bring 
to  maturity,  so  our  churches  and  institutions  may  be  the 
better  for  being  uprooted  and  set  down  elsewhere  among 
new  races  and  new  conditions,  that  they  may  shed  aU 
that  is  merely  national,  and  may  appropriate  all  that  is 
best  in  every  soU,  tUl  they  mature  in  fuU  beauty.  And 
even  if  there  be  no  perceptible  improvement,  at  least  we 
learn  to  recognise  that  the  differences  in  various  lands 

13 


178 


Expansion  in  America 


are  not  of  the  essence  of  Christianity,  and  to  lay  the 
emphasis  aright  on  that  which  is  held  and  practised 
in  common. 

Thus,  to  illustrate  this  principle,  isolate  the  develop- 
ment of  that  singular  phenomenon  of  Monasticism,  which 
we  have  met  again  and  again,  and  see  how  its  surroundings 
changed  its  character.  The  hermits  of  India,  when  they 
sought  seclusion,  desired  simply  their  own  perfection, 
their  absorption  into  Nirvana,  by  meditation.  The 
Buddha  retained  the  object  and  the  method  of  renuncia- 
tion, but  he  gathered  his  followers  into  societies  and  sent 
them  forth  to  preach,  adding  to  the  quest  for  salvation 
the  aim  at  saving  others.  When  transplanted  to  Egypt 
and  converted  to  Christian  uses,  the  system  aimed  more 
distinctly  at  union  with  God,  but  modified  the  means  by 
the  personal  and  human  touch,  devotion  to  Jesus  Christ. 
At  times  this  degenerated  to  a wild  fanaticism,  but  was 
still  tempered  by  the  stern  disciphne  of  work.  Athanasius 
transplanted  farther  west,  and  Martin  of  Tours  trans- 
formed afresh  on  new  soil.  To  mere  activity,  which  might 
equally  be  practised  in  a secular  communist  society,  he 
gave  definite  point  and  direction,  evincing  activity  in 
mission  work  ; and  forthwith  a new  era  opened  for  Christ 
in  the  north  of  Europe  among  new  races.  And  whereas 
devotion  to  the  Saviour  had  chiefly  manifested  itself  in 
contemplation,  which  can  easily  fade  into  what  we  are 
prone  to  call  laziness,  a new  mode  of  expression  soon 
appeared  in  devout  study  of  the  words  of  Christ  and  His 
friends  ; and  so  the  Scotch  monasteries  became  homes 


Evolution  of  a Modern  Missionary  179 


of  Hussions  and  of  Gkristian  learning.  All  this  while  the 
old  Indian  tradition  had  survived,  that  monks  must  be 
celibates,  freed  from  family  ties  ; again  and  again  harm 
had  come  from  this  persistence,  and  often  it  had  been 
challenged.  The  northern  nations  were  the  first  to  declare 
it  no  part  of  the  Gospel  discipline,  and  to  remember  that 
Christ  referred  often  with  approval  to  the  fact  that  God 
created  us  male  and  female,  drawing  the  inference  that  men 
ought  to  marry.  So  another  transformation  took  place, 
and  the  modern  Protestant  missionary  emerged.  Each 
stage  of  the  evolution  had  shown  a variety  capable  of 
good  service,  each  may  still  have  a useful  place  in  some 
part  of  God’s  great  field  ; but  we  may  thank  Him  that  He 
fulfils  Himself  in  so  many  ways,  and  helps  us  to  recognise 
what  is  needful  and  lasting  amid  all  the  changes  of  time 
and  place. 

So  then  in  North  America — and  indeed  in  Austraha 
also — the  one  great  question  raised  by  the  expansion  of 
Christendom  is.  What  will  be  discarded  from  the  heritage 
of  the  past  as  a mere  transitory  form,  and  what  will 
be  developed  amid  new  surroundings  ? The  problem  is 
simpler  than  in  the  past,  for  there  is  now  no  native  race 
in  these  continents  which  is  at  all  hkely  to  react  seriously 
upon  Christianity,  and  incorporate  its  old  pagan  customs 
with  our  own.  Whatever  alteration  takes  place  will 
be  free  from  disturbing  and  debasing  factors.  It  will 
be  due  either  to  the  quiet  shedding  of  forms  which 
have  served  their  purpose,  even  as  the  calyx  of  the 
poppy  withers  and  falls  as  the  corolla  expands ; or 


180 


Expansion  in  America 


to  the  luxuriant  opening  out  in  fresh  and  fertile  soil, 
under  the  stimulus  of  purer  air  and  clearer  sunshine, 
of  what  has  been  latent  from  the  first,  but  has  as 
yet  had  no  opportunity  to  mature.  What  now  may 
we  look  for  among  those  of  our  own  kith  and  kin  in 
these  lands  ? 

The  outward  forms  of  worship  are  not  likely  to  persist 
in  the  precise  fashion  ordered  by  Elizabeth’s  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, or  the  pattern  elaborated  in  the  notes  to  the 
Genevan  Bible.  May  we  not  go  further  and  observe  that 
the  Jewish  pattern,  taken  over  without  exphcit  order  in 
the  first  age,  is  visibly  changing  ? Already  the  Sunday 
school,  started  indeed  in  England,  has  been  systematised 
and  developed  in  America  to  a pitch  of  high  excellence. 
Already  the  Y.P.S.C.E.,  origmated  in  New  England,  has 
been  transplanted  and  improved  in  Australia.  Even  as 
Burbank  in  California  is  patiently  experimentiug  with 
plants,  and  is  producing  new  and  welcome  varieties  of 
fruit,  so  the  simple  elements  of  praise  and  prayer,  reading 
and  preaching,  are  being  combined  in  new  and  attractive 
styles  of  service. 

Look  next  at  Church  organisation.  To  America 
were  transplanted  from  Britain  three  patterns,  monarchical, 
aristocratic,  democratic.  Already  a Methodist  Episcopal 
has  been  produced,  an  ingenious  crossing  of  two  of  these. 
Away  in  Tasmania  the  Baptist  leaders  examined  their 
Bibles  to  see  if  Baptist  traditions  were  absolutely  in 
harmony  with  New  Testament  principle ; whether  a few 
baptized  behevers  who  build  a house  for  prayer  and  praise. 


Is  Independency  Scriptural? 


181 


paying  a few  men  and  women  to  conduct  it,  with,  one 
pastor  at  the  head,  form  “ a Church  ” of  Divine  right, 
on  a necessary  pattern.  They  decide  not,  and  all  the 
Baptists  in  the  island  form  really  one  community,  with  the 
ministers  recognised  as  the  ministers  of  the  whole  body. 
Church  extension  and  matters  of  general  interest  are 
decided  by  the  whole,  and  selfish  isolation  is  discouraged. 
The  same  question  occurred  to  a minister  in  Kentucky, 
and  he  asked  whether  New  Testament  precedent  did 
not  point  to  a single  Church  of  Louisville,  like  the  Church 
of  Ephesus  or  of  Jerusalem  or  of  Corinth.  And  the 
same  question  has  again  been  raised  in  Britain ; a 
recent  president  of  the  Baptist  Union  has  boldly  avowed 
that  the  usual  plan  is  at  best  of  human  origin,  and 
not  ordered  in  Scripture,  whUe  many  of  its  developments 
are  absolutely  anti-Scriptural.  For  the  next  few  years 
Enghsh  Baptists  are  hkely  to  inquire  diligently  whether 
the  congregational  system,  bhndly  adopted  from  Robert 
Browne,  is  the  last  word  in  organisation  ; or  whether  the 
New  Testament  does  not  show  us  aU  the  baptized  believers 
in  a town  forming  one  Church,  with  a plurahty  of  elders 
both  to  teach  and  to  administer  business,  and  probably 
many  houses  for  worship.  Indeed,  in  two  great  towns  this 
system  is  just  being  tried. 

If  this  seem  important,  go  further  and  ask  whether  all 
that  has  been  elaborated  in  doctrine  will  bear  transplanta- 
tion. Councils  have  sat,  (Ecumenical  Councils,  and  have 
patiently  or  impatiently  hammered  out  dogma  after 
dogma.  No  Protestant  behevea  the  Infallibility  of  the 


182 


Expansion  in  America 


Pope  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  both  announced  last  century.  No  Protestant  beheves 
that  eating  a piece  of  bread  under  certain  conditions 
actually  conveys  Divine  grace,  or  that  a certain  ceremony 
with  water  is  an  absolutely  essential  condition  for  the 
pardon  of  sins.  Yet  those  dogmas  have  been  formally 
taught,  and  are  accepted  by  millions.  Reject  them,  and 
where  shall  the  hne  be  drawn  ? Is  it  even  probable  that 
the  definitions  of  the  Greeks  in  450  a.d.  are  cast  into  forms 
that  are  congenial  to  Teutons  at  this  stage  in  thought  ? 
Nay,  come  nearer  home  ; in  the  seventeenth  century  an 
assembly  of  British  divines  and  laymen  elaborated  a 
long  Confession  of  Faith,  presently  amended  by  a Baptist 
pastor,  and  endorsed  by  the  representatives  of  more  than 
a hundred  churches  in  England,  then  by  an  American 
assembly  at  Philadelphia.  Is  it  hkely  that  these  old 
Enghsh  formularies  enshrine  exactly  the  hve  modern 
American  behefs  ? that  the  topics  there  mentioned 
are  the  only  matters  interesting  men  to-day  ? For 
instance,  what  had  Pastor  CoUins  to  say  about  foreign 
missions  in  1677  ? Nothing ! And  the  churches  which 
insist  upon  asking  whether  their  office-bearers  are  true  to 
his  Confession  contain  several  which  are  content  with  his 
thinking,  which  are  cold  to  the  work  of  spreading  the 
Gospel,  and  even  oppose  aU  concerted  action  for  the 
one  sohtary  duty  which  the  Ascending  Lord  left  as  His 
legacy  to  the  Church. 


Change,  Decay,  Vitality 


183 


Conclusion 

Why  rage  and  fret  thee ; only  let  them  be : 

The  monkish  rod,  the  sacerdotal  pall, 

Council  and  convent,  pope  and  cardinal. 

The  black  priest  and  his  holy  wizardry. 

Nay,  dread  them  not,  for  thought  and  liberty 
Spread  ever  faster  than  the  foe  can  smite. 

And  these  shall  vanish  as  the  starless  night 
Before  a morning  mightier  than  the  sea. 

Lampman. 

Clianges,  then,  are  to  be  expected  as  Christianity  unfolds 
in  new  lands.  Much  that  is  shaken  must  fall  and  pass 
away  ; but  that  which  is  vital  will  abide.  And  while  all 
forms  of  worship  must  naturally  vary  with  differing  races, 
while  methods  of  organisation  may  follow  those  familiar 
in  civil  life,  while  confessions  of  behef  in  order  to  be 
real  must  be  the  spontaneous  words  of  the  believer  ; 
yet  behind  variety  of  ritual,  machinery,  and  dogma, 
is  the  life  sustained  by  the  one  Life-Giver.  Diver- 
sities of  gifts  there  should  be  in  different  ages,  with 
the  recognition  that  they  are  from  the  same  Spirit ; 
diversities  of  ministrations  there  should  be  by  dif- 
ferent races,  but  rendered  in  the  name  of  the  same 
Lord ; diversities  of  workings  there  should  be  on 
differently  developed  mission  fields,  but  all  to  the  glory 
of  the  same  God. 

What  sort  of  change,  then,  has  passed  over  the  Eoman 
Catholic  Church  ? Once  were  to  be  found  in  its  communion 
such  ardent  missionaries  as  Martin,  Gregory,  Boniface  ; 


184 


Expansion  in  America 


little  by  little  its  character  changed,  more  and  more 
doubtful  became  the  proceedings  of  its  emissaries,  tiU  we 
hear  of  one  legate  heading  a crusade  to  blot  out  the 
Albigenses,  and  of  marvellous  concessions  in  the  Far 
East,  which  looked  so  hke  mere  surrender  to  heathenism 
that  Rome  itself  condemned  them.  We  have  seen  what 
has  become  of  Catholicism  transplanted  into  South 
America  ; what  of  it  in  the  North  1 

Two  tendencies  are  observable.  A desire  to  stereotype 
seventeenth  - century  Catholicism  is  specially  strong  in 
Quebec,  and  is  traceable  in  other  plantations  of  France 
and  Spain.  But  a new  phenomenon  has  arisen,  called 
Americanism,  where  the  new  wine  of  the  New  World  seems 
to  be  fermenting  strongly  and  straining  the  old  skins. 
This  has,  indeed,  been  officially  condemned ; but  a sign 
of  the  times  is  that  stiU  such  bold  voices  are  raised  as 
that  of  Father  Jeremiah  Crowley,  of  the  archdiocese  of 
Chicago.  Hear  his  condemnation  of  the  actual  state  of 
things  in  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States. 
Of  the  priests  he  says  : — 

“ Many  of  them  are  themselves  intemperate,  and 
numbers  own  saloon  property  of  the  lowest  type.  I 
could  give  cases  in  which  Church  property  is  let  out  for 
saloon  purposes,  and  even  for  these  low  drinking-shops 
which  we  call  the  ‘ barrel  houses.’  The  people  generally 
do  not  realise  to  how  large  an  extent  the  Roman  clergy, 
even  the  highest  dignitaries,  are  silent  partners  in  the 
drink  traffic.  ...  An  American  archbishop  assured  me 
that  the  Romish  priesthood  was  so  corrupt  that  any 


Continental  Europe 


185 


attempt  to  reform  or  discipline  it  would  knock  tke  bottom 
out  of  tbe  Cburcb.”  ^ 

Here,  then,  is  another  terrible  accusation  against  the 
Church  of  Home  as  developed  in  North  America.  Trans- 
planting it  has  indeed  brought  forth  a new  shoot  of  some 
promise,  but  the  question  is  grave  whether  the  life  re- 
maining is  potent  enough  to  expel  the  evil  and  to  renew 
itself  in  pristine  vigour. 

This  raises  a deeper  question.  When  we  find  that 
Cathohcism  transplanted  to  South  America,  to  North 
America,  to  Australia,  and  we  might  add  also  to  China 
and  India,  seems  not  only  to  exhibit  degeneracy,  due 
possibly  to  local  conditions,  but  also  to  be  uniformly 
corrupt  and  feeble  as  a spiritual  force — whatever  it  be 
politically — then  it  is  time  to  ask  whether  the  stock 
whence  these  seedlings  have  been  brought  is  itself  healthy, 
or  whether  the  root  of  the  evil  is  not  ia  Europe.  Is  the 
work  there  accomphshed  once  for  aU,  so  that  it  needs 
no  further  care — hke  the  carving  of  the  golden  vine 
which  was  hung  over  the  lintel  of  the  Temple  and 
could  defy  aught  but  the  robber  or  the  flames ; or 
is  it  like  the  cultivation  of  the  hve  vine,  whose 
branches  must  remain  in  vital  contact  with  the 
root,  and  which  must  be  ever  tended  by  the  heavenly 
Husbandman,  lest  it  fail  to  bring  forth  fruit  ? Alas, 
in  the  opinion  of  many,  Europe  is  but  one  shade 
better  than  South  America ; it  has  a name  to  hve,  but 
is  dead.  The  East,  with  its  ancient  Christian  Churches, 
^ British  Weehly,  20  xii.  1906. 


186 


Expansion  in  America 


stiffened  and  fossilised  centuries  ago,  lias  long  ceased  to 
change,  much  less  to  extend,  and  is  inert  in  face  of  the 
Turks  and  Tatars  in  its  midst.  These  many  years  the 
Owner  has  found  no  fruit ; and  were  it  not  for  His  infinite 
patience,  it  weU  might  have  been  cut  down  as  cumbering 
the  ground.  A recent  student  thinks,  however,  that  there 
has  been  of  late  years  a marked  spiritual  revival  in  the 
rehgious  houses,  and  that  help  may  yet  come  from  the 
monks.’^  Latin  Christianity  is  indeed  alive,  but  grave 
questions  are  asked  whether  it  is  the  Spirit  of  God  or 
an  evil  spirit  that  animates  its  aged  body.  For  Ireland, 
once  the  glory  of  the  Christian  world,  read  the  books  of 
Michael  M‘Carthy,  a lay  Cathohc.  Then  Lutheranism 
long  ago  alhed  itself  with  the  powers  of  this  age,  and  still 
pays  the  penalty.  On  the  whole  Continental  problem, 
hear  Dr.  Newton  H.  Marshall,  sent  specially  to  study  the 
state  of  affairs,  and  reporting  to  the  Baptist  World 
AUiance  : — 

“ There  is  no  field  for  mission  work  comparable  with 
that  of  Europe.  The  bidk  of  the  population  of  Europe 
is  ignorant  of  Christianity  as  we  understand  it.  The 
commonly  received  Eoman  Cathohcism,  Greek  Orthodoxy, 
and  State-Estabhshed  Protestantism  is  formal  and  of 
relatively  small  moral  and  spiritual  value.  The  passions 
and  vices  of  paganism  are  rampant  in  European  civihsa- 
tion.  Every  part  of  the  world  is  interested  in  the  Chris- 
tianisation  of  Europe.  Obviously  it  is  the  first  essential  of 
European  prosperity  in  the  highest  sense  that  Christ 
^ British  Weekly,  3 i.  1907. 


The  Story  of  the  Past 


187 


should  be  known  to  these  peoples.  It  is  important  to 
America  that  its  immigrants  should  be  men  of  Christian 
type ; and  the  interests  of  the  non-Christian  world  are 
almost  entirely  bound  up  with  the  moral  and  spiritual 
state  of  Europe.  Missionaries  find  the  wickedness  of 
Europeans  the  greatest  obstacle  to  their  work ; and  as  a 
higher  civihsation  and  an  intenser  patriotism  grows  in 
Asia  and  other  lands,  the  desire  for  a satisfactory  rehgion 
will  compel  the  nation  to  look  to  Europe  to  see  what 
Christianity  is.” 

Two  streams  of  emigration  went  to  America  with 
slightly  different  religious  aims.  The  Latins  sought  to 
evangelise  the  natives,  the  Teutons  to  secme  for  themselves 
rehgious  freedom.  Latin  America  has  amalgamated  its 
former  pagan  customs  with  the  Cathohc  worship  brought 
to  it ; but  to-day  the  native  element  is  slowly  rising  from 
its  servitude,  and  in  religion  there  appear  intolerance 
and  atheism,  while  no  vestige  of  missionary  spirit  is  shown. 
Northern  America  was  for  centuries  asleep  to  the  call 
of  the  heathen,  but  all  the  while  religion  was  striking 
deep  root  in  the  ground  ; since  the  call  of  Carey  was  echoed 
by  Judson  and  Kice,  standard-bearers  have  pressed  to 
the  front  in  every  land.  Nor  is  this  the  best  service 
that  has  been  rendered ; the  early  history  of  missions 
abounds  with  warnings  that  zeal  without  discretion 
leads  to  disaster.  While  Danes  and  Germans,  who 
provided  the  first  Protestant  evangelists,  led  the  way 
also  in  systematic  collation  and  study  of  their  experi- 
ences, yet  that  way  has  been  traversed  chiefly  by 


188 


Expansion  in  America 


Americans.  The  scientific  study  of  missions  is  pursued 
mostly  in  the  New  World,  where  is  best  appreciated 
the  old  proverb  : — 

By  the  needle  you  shall  draw  the  thread ; 

By  that  which  is  past,  see  how  that  which  is  to  come  shall  he 
drawn  on. 


REPLANTING  IN  ASIA 


That  waiting  One,  who  now 
Is  letting  us  try  again ; 

Watching  us  with  the  patient  brow 
That  bore  the  wreath  of  pain ; 

Thoroughly  teaching  what  He  would  teach, 

Line  upon  hne. 

Thoroughly  doing  His  work  in  each. 

F.  R.  Havergal. 


V 


Replanting  in  Asia 

WE  return  to  close  the  circuit  of  the  globe  at  Asia. 
This  continent  is  the  largest  and  the  most  prolific  ; 
perhaps  the  birthplace  of  mankind,  certainly  of 
Christianity. 

Here  dwell  great  races  which  made  their  mark  in  history 
when  our  ancestors  were  yet  savages.  Here  are  religions 
which  had  six  centuries  of  experience  when  our  Lord 
came  to  earth.  Here  also  are  two-thirds  of  the  Mushm 
world ; so  that  of  every  seven  Asiatics,  one  is  a follower 
of  Muhammad,  and  he  is  usually  more  energetic  than  his 
six  neighbours.  For  Christianity  to  acknowledge  itself 
defeated  by  older  faiths  and  by  a newer  faith  would  be 
a confession  of  sloth  or  incompetence  ; such  a confession 
has  never  been  made.  Even  before  the  native  Asiatic 
Christianity  had  given  up  the  ghost,  European  missionaries 
were  at  work,  and  within  the  last  century  their  efforts 
have  commanded  some  serious  attention. 

We  shall  do  well  to  observe  first  the  work  of  the  neo- 
Roman  Church  as  altered  and  reinvigorated  by  the 
Company  of  Jesus.  Then  when  that  came  to  a standstill, 
or  was  even  all  but  extinguished,  we  shall  see  the  slow 

191 


192 


Replanting  in  Asia 


but  steady  preparation  for  the  next  attack,  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  new  bases  in  the  islands  and  the  continents  facing 
the  south  and  east  shores  of  Asia.  The  Protestant  work 
has  become  so  large  and  important  that  it  needs  consider- 
ing in  four  great  districts — India,  China,  Japan,  and  South- 
west Asia,  especially  as  these  present  problems  in  resistance 
that  differ  greatly. 


1.  The  Jesuits  in  India,  China,  and  Japan 

A soldier’s  course,  from  battles  won 
To  new-commencing  strife ; 

A pilgrim’s,  restless  as  the  sun — 

Behold  the  Christian’s  hfe  ! 

Prepared  the  trumpet’s  call  to  greet. 

Soldier  of  Jesus,  stand  ! 

Pilgrim  of  Christ,  with  ready  feet 

Await  thy  Lord’s  command.  '■ 

The  hosts  of  Satan  pant  for  spoil ; 

How  can  thy  warfare  close  ? 

Lonely,  thou  treadest  a foreign  soil ; 

How  canst  thou  hope  repose  ? 

Gisborne. 

Even  before  the  Persian  Christians  had  ended  their 
endeavours  in  China,  the  Franciscan  friars  in  the  first 
flush  of  their  zeal  had  entered ; but  although  we  have 
interesting  accounts  of  their  labours  at  Kambalu  or  Pekin, 
yet  with  John  of  MarignoUi,  about  the  time  when  mission 
work  in  Europe  was  ceasing  because  aU  the  heathen  were 
won,  the  curtain  falls  on  work  in  Asia.  When  it  rises 
again  aU  continuity  is  lost.  Nothing,  indeed,  in  mere 


A Missionaey  Society 


193 


geograpliy  is  more  striking  than  tke  fact  that  the  Cathay 
of  Marco  Polo  and  contemporary  travellers  overland  was 
not  recognised  in  the  China  discovered  by  the  sea  voyagers 
of  two  centuries  later.  And  the  new  stream  of  missionaries 
that  came  round  the  South  or  across  the  vast  ocean  to 
the  East  found  nothing  to  recall  the  labours  either  of  Adam 
from  Persia  or  of  William  from  Kubruck.  To  them  all 
seemed  virgin  soil,  except  in  a comer  of  India. 

If  the  Franciscans  had  brought  a type  of  Christianity 
strange  to  the  Persians,  the  Jesuits  brought  a third  difier- 
ing  from  both.  Eome  is  not  semper  eadem  in  doctrine 
or  discipline  or  methods,  and  the  new  chapter  of  missionary 
enterprise  illustrates  this  most  vividly.  It  is  irrelevant 
here  to  show  how  the  Latin  Church  of  1600  a.d. 
differed  in  Europe  from  that  of  1500  a.d.,  with  a new 
creed  and  new  rules  elaborated  at  Trent ; it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  moving  force  behind  the  transforma- 
tion, which  had  absolutely  free  play  in  the  mission  field 
of  Asia — the  Society  of  Jesus. 

Ignatius  Loyola  was  essentially  a soldier ; and  when 
his  secular  mihtary  career  was  cut  short,  he  planned  a 
spiritual  military  career.  He  was  the  General  Booth  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  ardent,  religious,  autocratic,  and 
full  of  resource.  To  him  was  due  the  magnificent  military 
organisation,  wherein  absolute  obedience  was  exacted 
from  every  recruit,  at  the  risk  of  crushing  aU  power  of 
initiative,  and  failing  to  provide  for  capable  successors  in 
the  generalship.  But  fortunately  by  his  side  was  Francis 
Xavier,  full  of  missionary  zeal,  who  from  the  outset  led 


194 


Replanting  in  Asia 


the  military  company  to  the  field  of  foreign  service.  In 
western  India,  the  southern  islands,  Japan,  and  China,  he 
pioneered  ; and  if  his  fife  was  too  brief  to  show  much  effect, 
it  inspired  the  Society  to  regard  missions  as  its  distinct 
aim.  Promotion  in  its  ranks  is  slow  ; but  all  authority  is 
concentrated  in  the  highest  grade,  whose  distinguishing 
feature  is  a pledge  to  go  on  mission  work  to  any  spot 
at  any  time  when  ordered.  Is  it  too  much  to  say  that 
the  Company  is  essentially  a missionary  society  1 It  is 
singular  that  the  governing  caste  is  that  which  is  thus 
mobilised  for  instant  service  ; it  recalls  how  in  England 
there  was  one  time  when  the  Army  and  its  General  Crom- 
well practically  monopolised  all  power,  and  how  England, 
while  she  sickened  of  its  home  tyranny,  yet  rejoiced  in 
its  foreign  service  and  fame. 

So  when  Xavier  died  on  the  Chinese  shores,  others 
were  speedily  sent  to  develop  the  work  he  initiated.  One 
great  method  characterised  the  Society,  that  of  adapta- 
tion. We  have  noted  that  on  the  mission  fields  the  pro- 
blem had  repeatedly  emerged.  How  far  local  religious 
customs  might  be  retained.  The  Jesuits  were  prepared 
to  go  further  than  any  of  their  predecessors,  and  have 
given  us  a striking  object-lesson  on  the  limits  of  com- 
promise. 

In  Japan  they  found  something  hke  the  feudal  system, 
with  barons  ruling  their  retainers.  They  used  this 
authority,  won  a few  barons,  and  encouraged  them  to 
compel  their  dependents  to  profess  their  faith.  But 
the  islanders  were  fiercely  patriotic ; they  heard  how  in 


The  Chinese  Rites 


195 


Europe  the  Jesuits  did  not  hesitate  to  inspire  forcible 
methods  for  conversion  and  conquest ; and  before  it  was 
too  late  they  proscribed  the  new  religion.  A steady  and 
frightful  persecution  expelled  the  foreign  workers,  and 
drove  Christianity  out  of  sight  within  a century  of 
Xavier’s  quitting  Japan.  Yet  be  it  noted  that  when 
after  two  centuries  Cathohc  missionaries  once  again 
entered  the  empire,  they  found  that  a native  Church  had 
secretly  persisted  without  missionary  or  priest  or  Bible. 
Such  vitahty  has  the  Gospel ! 

While  in  Japan  the  adaptation  was  to  the  feudal  state  of 
society,  in  China  it  was  to  the  respect  for  ancestors  and 
for  learning.  The  Jesuits  obtained  their  footing  on  the 
mainland  with  a plea  that  they  sought  seclusion  to  study  ; 
they  improved  their  position  by  adopting  the  academic 
dress  of  the  land,  by  a remarkable  insight  into  Chinese 
modes  of  thought,  as  Ricci  showed  in  his  books,  and  by 
introducing  the  mathematics  and  science  of  the  West. 
Surveying  and  astronomy  were  pursued  by  them  for  the 
behoof  of  the  emperor,  nor  did  they  hesitate  at  founding 
cannon  by  the  hundred. 

If  such  mihtant  occupations  seem  hardly  accordant 
with  the  ambassadors  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  yet  attention 
was  attracted  rather  by  their  attitude  to  certain  reverences 
at  the  tablets  of  ancestors  and  certain  ceremonial  offerings. 
The  Jesuits  held  that  these  were  mere  social  civil  customs, 
and  were  fortified  by  the  official  approval  of  the  Chinese 
emperor,  and  by  the  declaration  of  many  Chinese  of  all 
ranks.  The  rival  Dominican  missionaries  obtained  the 


196 


Replanting  in  Asia 


ruling  of  the  Pope  that  these  were  pagan  rehgious  cere- 
monies which  could  not  be  performed  by  Christians. 
When,  too,  it  was  found  that  the  old  idols  were  not 
banished,  but  were  allowed  to  remain  alongside  the 
symbols  of  the  new  faith,  then  missionaries  of  other  orders 
opposed  and  obtained  ofidcial  repudiation  of  such  accom- 
modation to  heathen  customs.  The  emperor,  however, 
announced  that  conformity  to  the  Chinese  customs  would 
be  expected,  and  so  the  situation  under  the  Roman 
emperors  was  reproduced. 

Although  the  tact  of  the  Jesuits  and  their  maia- 
tenance  of  their  own  Chinese  poHcy  averted  a local 
rupture  for  awhile  at  the  cost  of  weakening  their  posi- 
tion in  Europe,  a new  emperor  cut  the  Gordian  knot  in 
1724  A.D.  by  following  the  example  of  Japan,  forbidding 
all  Cathohc  propaganda,  and  escorting  the  missionaries 
to  the  coast.  In  the  days  of  their  prosperity,  the  Jesuits 
had  comported  themselves  with  arrogance,  dressing  and 
travelling  hke  rich  lords,  relying  on  their  native  catechists 
for  work  among  the  commonalty,  and  devoting  themselves 
to  winning  the  upper  classes  or  to  hterary  pursuits.  But 
now  they  rose  to  the  occasion,  threw  themselves  on  the 
fidehty  of  their  followers  in  the  lower  ranks,  to  whom 
they  stole  back  in  disguise  and  faithfully  ministered. 
Throughout  long  persecution,  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
converts  were  steadfast,  and  fresh  missionaries  arrived, 
till  fifty  years  ago  new  treaties  permitted  them  tofemerge 
into  the  light  of  day. 

It  soon  appeared  that  much  property  had  been  preserved 


Catholics  Disestablished 


197 


all  tills  time,  and  speedily  tlie  old  policy  was  resumed. 
The  whole  empire  was  mapped  out  into  bishoprics,  and 
in  pursuance  of  the  assimilation  idea,  oj6B.cial  status  was 
obtained  for  the  bishops,  to  hold  civil  rank  on  the  lines 
so  famihar  with  the  Lord  Bishops  in  England.  Stately 
cathedrals  arose,  money  was  invested  till  an  income  of 
nearly  thirteen  million  dollars  is  available  for  extension, 
and  thus  a mUhon  and  a half  of  followers  makes  a somewhat 
formidable  show.  But  again  a keen  observer  declares 
that  the  aim  is  rather  at  external  conversion  than  at  the 
gradual  enhghtenment  and  final  reformation  of  the  whole 
empire.  Still,  the  Chinese  authorities  are  not  satisfied 
with  the  accommodation  to  their  own  customs  which 
all  Cathohcs  acquiesce  in  ; they  are  afironted  at  the 
establishment  of  a body  of  people  owning  some  kind 
of  allegiance  to  a foreign  priest,  who  can  appoint  or 
depose  the  bishops  in  China,  thus  indirectly  appointing 
to  Chinese  rank,  yet  who  seldom  if  ever  appoints 
Chinese  to  ofl&ce,  but  governs  through  Europeans.  Hence 
the  latest  move  of  the  Chinese  is  towards  revoking  their 
civil  rank. 

In  the  process  of  manufacture  it  is  often  found  that  a 
firm  will  devote  itself  largely  to  refining  material  which 
has  'been  mined  and  crudely  prepared  by  others.  Such 
was  the  pohcy  adopted  in  India,  where  Xavier  had  found 
the  ancient  Church  of  Thomas  represented  at  Cochin, 
and  where  he  instigated  the  Inquisition  of  Goa  to  subject 
it  to  the  successor  of  Peter.  The  process  was  not  very 
thorough,  and  it  cannot  be  called  mission  work ; we  need 


198 


Keplanting  in  Asia 


only  note  the  Jesuit  methods  among  the  heathen.  Here, 
again,  compromise  with  native  customs  was  carried  to  an 
extreme  that  scandahsed  missionaries  of  rival  orders,  and 
not  only  led  to  exphcit  condemnation  at  Rome  but  was 
one  of  the  reasons  alleged  for  the  total  suppression  of  the 
Society.  We  know  that  it  has  revived,  and  unhappily 
the  method  of  assimilation  has  revived  too.  A Protestant 
visitor  to  South  India  twelve  years  ago  watched  an  open- 
air  service  for  twenty  minutes  -under  the  impression  that 
it  was  a gorgeous  heathen  function. 

To-day  it  seems  as  if  the  Jesuit  temper  and  the  Jesuit 
principles  predominate  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Undoubtedly  this  appears  on  the  foreign  mission  field. 
The  suppleness  and  adaptability  are  almost  unlimited ; 
the  pomp  and  arrogance  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  all 
the  pohcy  then  so  fiercely  contested  by  the  Dominicans 
and  the  French,  seem  to  be  dehberately  adopted  by  the 
modern  ultramontane  missionaries  in  China. 

In  India,  again,  all  the  compromises  of  Robert  de’  Nobili 
have  become  so  much  the  order  of  the  whole  communion 
that  a native  Civil  servant  reported  in  1891  on  the  Maisur 
census  that  he  had  met  several  Roman  Cathohc  com- 
munities continuing  undisturbed  in  their  ancestral  rites 
and  usages,  especially  at  marriages  and  festivals,  calling 
in  the  Brahman  astrologers  and  family  priests,  and  even 
using  the  rehgious  mark  on  the  forehead  which  distin- 
guishes the  Hindu  sects  and  castes.  One  feature  that  can 
excite  our  legitimate  admiration  is  the  tenacity  of  both 
converts  and  missionaries  in  the  face  of  torture,  and  the 


Propaganda 


199 


persistence  of  the  native  Churcli  throughout  centuries  with 
but  few  aids  to  faith. 

It  deserves  attention  that  as  early  as  1582  a.d.  a special 
Foreign  Mission  Committee  of  cardinals  was  appointed  at 
Rome,  a sign  that  henceforward  the  great  work  of  the 
Church  should  be  systematically  surveyed  and  prosecuted. 
By  1622  A.D.  this  was  fully  organised,  and  soon  the 
“ Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  ” had 
established  a great  training  college  for  European  and  native 
missionaries,  where  also  a printing-press  renders  permanent 
their  hterary  labours.  Not  till  1612  a.d.  were  Protestants 
stirred  to  found  their  first  Missionary  Seminary  at 
Leyden,  and  the  New  England  Company  in  1649  a.d. 
Not  till  the  close  of  the  century  was  the  lesson  taken  to 
heart  by  the  foundation  of  the  Societies  for  the  Promoting 
of  Christian  Knowledge,  and  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  with  a corresponding  Society  in 
Denmark.  Indeed,  except  for  the  expansion  of  the  white 
race  into  other  continents,  the  foreign  mission  work  of 
Christendom  was  prosecuted  chiefly  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  for  a century  and  a half,  till  the  United  Brethren 
showed  an  appreciation  of  duty  equal  to  that  of  the  Jesuits. 

2.  New  Bases  acquired  off  the  Coast 

A lake  of  molten  fires  which  swell  and  surge 
And  fall  in  thunders  on  the  burning  verge ; 

And  one,  a queen,  rapt,  with  illumined  face. 

Who  doth  defy  the  goddess  of  the  place. 

Lewis  Morris. 


200 


Keplanting  in  Asia 


0 Australia,  fair  and  lovely,  empress  of  the  southern  seas  ! 

What  a glorious  fame  awaits  thee  in  the  future’s  history. 

Land  of  wealth  and  land  of  beauty,  tropic  suns  and  Arctic  snows, 
Where  the  splendid  noontide  rages,  where  the  raging  stormwind 
blows. 

Bo  thou  proud,  and  he  thou  daring,  ever  true  to  God  and  man 
In  all  evil  be  to  rearward,  in  all  good  take  thou  the  van  ! 

Only  let  thy  hands  be  stainless,  let  thy  life  be  pure  and  true. 
And  a destiny  awaits  thee  such  as  nations  never  knew. 

Agnes  Neale. 

Missions  in  the  South.  Seas  are  usually  regarded  even  by 
the  boards  and  by  the  missionaries  as  ends  in  themselves, 
being  direct  fulfilments  of  the  standing  orders  to  the 
Church.  Strategists  are  all  too  few.  Yet,  when  we  survey 
the  course  of  events  only  for  a few  score  of  years,  it  is 
difficult  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  the  labourers  builded 
better  than  they  knew,  and  that  the  great  Architect  on 
high  was  slowly  fulfilling  His  vast  plans  through  uncom- 
prehending workmen.  Hence  there  is  justification  for 
treating  missions  in  the  Pacific  as  ancillary  to  and  pre- 
paratory for  a renewed  attempt  on  the  mainland  of  Asia. 

It  cannot  even  be  justly  said  that  many  fresh  principles 
of  importance  come  to  light,  that  any  new  experiments  of 
the  first  magnitude  have  succeeded  here.  We  may  indeed 
read  with  pleasure  the  wonderful  conversions  of  some 
islanders,  and  join  in  Drummond’s  tribute  of  praise  to 
the  workers  among  insignificant  and  vanishing  races  ; yet 
he  saw  that  the  importance  here  is  in  the  occupation 
of  Australia,  California,  and  British  Columbia  by  white 
Christians. 

Concerning,  then,  the  last  century’s  work  in  Oceania,  little 


In  the  Pacific 


201 


need  be  said.  There  were  no  great  organised  religions  to 
encounter,  professed  by  millions  of  people  ; tbe  islanders 
were  isolated,  and  the  Christian  forces  could  be  concen- 
trated in  mass  on  some  small  group  ; even  in  Hawaii  the 
system  of  tapu,  linked  with  the  power  of  priests  and  kings, 
could  ofier  no  long  resistance.  The  great  diflQ.culties  have 
really  arisen  from  the  conduct  of  un-Christian  white  men, 
with  their  vices,  their  diseases,  their  demoralising  trade, 
and  their  labour  traffic,  while  the  competition  of  Cathohc 
workers  is  a sore  trial.  The  missionary  methods  are 
governed  by  the  fact  of  this  being  an  oceanic  area  : certain 
islands  are  selected  as  headquarters  for  the  training  of 
natives  and  for  consultation  of  the  white  superintendents. 
Itineration  is  of  necessity  by  ship,  and  the  native  churches 
are  largely  under  pastors  of  their  own  race  : the  expenses 
are  not  heavy,  even  when  printing  Bibles  and  other  litera- 
ture is  included,  and  the  converts  are  encouraged  to  defray 
this  themselves.  Thus  industrial  work  develops,  which 
indeed  was  put  in  the  forefront  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society. 

Nearer  to  the  mainland  lie  larger  islands,  and  these  soon 
attracted  the  attention  of  Europeans,  both  for  dominion 
and  for  evangelisation.  The  Philippines,  so  close  to  Asia, 
and  under  Spanish  rule  since  the  sixteenth  century,  might 
be  expected  to  be  prominent  in  mission  story.  Four  orders 
of  friars  settled  on  these  islands,  acquiring  enormous 
wealth  and  influence,  till  they  really  managed  the  govern- 
ment and  had  won  to  Christianity  all  the  millions  of 
natives  on  the  lowlands,  except  the  Muslims.  But  they 


202 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


never  would  admit  the  natives  into  their  orders,  so  that 
they  always  were  foreigners,  and  were  regarded  as  exploit- 
ing the  islands  ; thus  the  Fihpinos,  if  Christian  in  any  real 
sense,  never  joined  the  friars  in  extending  missionary 
operations  further.  Moreover,  Spanish  commercial  jealousy 
led  to  the  suppression  of  intercourse  with  China.  In  this 
century,  however,  the  Phihppines  have  regained  their 
rightful  position  as  related  to  their  neighbours.  The 
natives  desired  the  withdrawal  of  the  twelve  hundred 
foreign  friars,  and  steps  are  being  taken  to  replace  them 
by  American  and  native  priests ; Protestant  workers  also 
enter,  so  that  a new  type  of  Christianity  is  rapidly  spreading. 
The  archipelago  is  still  to  be  regarded  as  a mission  field 
like  Japan,  rather  than  as  a vantage-ground  whence  to 
approach  the  mainland ; but  the  establishment  of  a pro- 
gressive Western  rule  marks  the  coming  transition. 

The  Portuguese  were  even  earher  in  these  parts — at 
Malacca,  the  Moluccas,  Macao,  and  Canton ; but  their 
missionary  efiorts  were  not  important.  When,  however, 
Spain  annexed  Portugal,  the  Dutch  annexed  most  of  these 
colonies,  and  promptly  sent  out  ministers  to  win  the 
natives.  In  Formosa  they  did  good  work,  and  in  the 
very  year  that  Eliot  issued  his  Indian  New  Testament, 
two  Gospels  were  printed  in  Formosan.  Unfortunately 
the  Chinese  expelled  the  Dutch,  and  these  efiorts  ceased 
here  ; but  it  deserves  to  be  recollected  that  the  first 
Protestant  missionary  version  was  due  to  Holland,  and 
that  it  is  the  first  for  Eastern  Asia  which  survives.  More 
to  the  West,  the  Buddhists  in  Ceylon  ofiered  stubborn 


Dutch  Missions 


203 


resistance  till  civil  rewards  were  ofiered  to  converts, 
and  coercion  was  employed ; the  Tamils  of  the  North 
had  no  organised  rehgion,  and  acquiesced  more  easily. 
Free  compulsory  schools  were  opened,  where  certain 
texts  and  prayers  were  memorised  as  the  chief  qualifica- 
tion for  baptism  ; seminaries  were  established  to  train 
native  workers.  Within  a century,  versions  of  large 
parts  of  the  Bible  were  pubhshed  in  Tamil  and  Singhalese. 
But  it  was  confessed,  even  by  the  missionaries  in  con- 
sistory, that  the  superficial  effect  was  unreal.  There 
might  be  nearly  half  a milhon  enrolled  as  Christians,  but 
barely  one  in  two  thousand  was  a communicant,  the 
vast  majority  stiU  adhering  to  native  worship.  It  is  at 
least  to  the  credit  of  the  Dutch  that  this  was  deplored, 
and  not  sanctioned  as  permissible.  Tamil  was  the  tongue 
of  the  continent  across  the  straits,  they  therefore  sought 
to  spread  their  faith  on  the  mainland,  especially  on  the 
Coromandel  coast,  while  north  of  Madras  they  had  a 
native  Church  even  before  their  Ceylon  work  was  fairly 
under  way.  Still,  on  the  whole,  their  missions  were 
linked  with  their  political  dominion,  and  it  is  painful  to 
add  that,  when  the  latter  ceased,  the  former  vanished 
like  the  baseless  fabric  of  a dream. 

In  Java  and  the  neighbouring  islands  the  Dutch  flag 
stm  flies ; and  for  nearly  three  hundred  years  the  Gospel 
has  been  systematically  spread  in  the  Netherland  East 
Indies  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  while  versions 
in  Malay  and  Portuguese  were  early  circulated.  For 
the  last  sixty  years  this  State  mission  has  been  supple- 


204 


Replanting  in  Asia 


merited  by  tbe  Mennonites,  and  tbe  work  has  taken  on 
a new  phase  in  that  tbe  Government  seems  inclined  to 
temporise,  and  even  to  discourage  missions  and  to  favour 
tbe  Muslims  ; to  tbis  tbe  missionary  response  is  that  it 
is  exactly  among  tbe  Muslims  tbeir  best  work  is  done. 
And  in  tbis  way  we  can  see  that  tbe  islands  are  real  bases 
for  work  on  tbe  continent. 

Tbe  step  across  was  taken  by  tbe  Danes,  whose  capital  of 
Tranquebar  on  tbe  Coromandel  coast  was  occupied  at  tbeir 
king’s  orders  by  Ziegenbalg  in  1706  a.d.  Within  a few 
years  be  also  bad  put  forth  Tamil  and  Portuguese  Bibles, 
and  estabbsbed  a type-foundry  and  paper-miU  and  press. 
A score  of  schools  followed,  then  versions  in  Telugu  and 
Urdu.  Tbe  wars  of  tbe  French  and  Engbsb  broke  up 
work  at  headquarters,  but  acted  bke  tbe  martyrdom  of 
Stephen  in  spreading  tbe  missionaries  to  tbe  extreme 
South  and  up  to  Calcutta,  besides  over  tbe  neighbourhood. 
Especially  in  tbe  district  around  Tinnevelly  did  tbe  work 
persist,  and  in  tbe  bands  of  two  Engbsb  Episcopal  Societies 
is  again  abundantly  successful. 

Tbe  troubles,  however,  that  tbe  Jesuits  bad  encountered 
soon  beset  these  missions,  especially  as  to  caste.  As 
tbis  remains  a constant  problem  to-day,  it  is  weU  to  face 
tbe  difibculty.  South  India  is  inhabited  by  tbe  black 
Dravidian  race,  speaking  four  languages  of  importance. 
Many  centuries  ago  tbe  Brahman  priests  from  tbe  North 
came  amongst  them  and  superposed  tbeir  own  supremacy 
and  a few  of  tbeir  customs  on  tbe  local  rebgions.  Tbe 
Brahmans  consider  that  they  are  immeasurably  tbe 


Caste 


205 


superiors  of  these  “ monkey-like  ” peoples,  whom  they 
contemptuously  regarded  as  out-caste.  But  the  peoples 
themselves  naturally  felt  difierences  unheeded  by  their 
superiors,  and  to  their  classes  based  on  social  rank  or 
occupation  they  applied  the  caste  rules  of  the  Brahman. 
The  result  is  that  the  population  is  distributed  into  her- 
editary trade-guilds,  not  permitting  inter-marriage  except 
under  special  restrictions,  and  dechning  to  eat  together. 
The  question  was,  and  is,  whether  such  separation  can  be 
justified  in  a Christian  society.  The  outsider  promptly 
says  that  Paul’s  words  as  to  unity  forbid  it  in  letter  and 
in  spirit ; but  the  missionary  on  the  field  often  seems 
to  falter  when  confronted  with  the  actual  difficulty  and 
the  age-long  custom.  The  most  explicit  orders  that  caste 
is  to  be  ignored  have  not  sufficed  to  banish  even  caste- 
names  from  church-rolls ; and  the  mutual  repulsion  is 
such  that  if  one  caste  shows  a disposition  to  join  the 
community  evangelised  by  Baptists,  another  caste  inter- 
mingled in  the  same  area,  and  equally  susceptible  to  the 
Gospel,  will  join  the  Church  of  England. 

The  tropical  islands  are  still  inhabited  by  the  native 
races,  but  beyond  them  he  Austraha  and  New  Zealand, 
mostly  in  the  South  Temperate  zone,  and  within  ten  days’ 
steam  of  India  or  China  ; while  in  the  North  Temperate 
zone  hes  America,  whose  western  shore  is  within  a fort- 
night. The  occupation  of  these  large  areas  by  white  men 
has  given  Christian  missions  two  new  starting-points.  A 
word  is  due  to  the  aborigines  of  the  southern  lands. 

Sixty  years  ago  it  seemed  as  if  the  Maoris  were  won  for 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


206 

Christ,  and  that  a new  and  stalwart  race  was  a trophy 
of  the  Gospel.  But  the  belief  arose  that  they  were  the 
true  Israel,  and  their  worship  and  customs  were  reorgan- 
ised on  this  basis,  imfortunately  without  proper  respect 
to  the  second  and  seventh  commandments.  In  this 
movement  the  old  heathen  priests  had  no  small  share, 
and  the  defection  illustrates  how  the  old  root  springing 
up  may  defile  again.  Then  came  Mormon  missionaries, 
who  also  depleted  the  Christian  ranks,  till  the  outlook 
seems  most  depressing,  as  a race  once  noble  withers  away 
in  vice  and  mistaken  religion.  Here  we  have  a terrible 
object-lesson  that,  while  the  estabhshment  of  a native 
Church  is  to  be  aimed  at,  there  is  grave  danger  in  removing 
too  quickly  those  who  are  experienced  in  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  past  and  the  heresies  of  the  present. 

In  Tasmania  the  aborigines  are  extinct.  In  Australia 
the  black-feUows  are  being  driven  back  by  the  advance 
of  the  white  man,  and  the  dissolution  of  their  elaborate 
tribal  and  totem  system  is  not  adequately  coimteracted 
by  the  energetic  presentation  of  the  Gospel.  On  a few 
reservations  mission  work  is  done,  but  the  roaming  tribes 
are  practically  vmtouched,  and  their  extinction  seems 
within  short  distance.  The  case  is  different  in  Papua, 
which  lies  in  the  tropics,  and  here  success  is  won  as  in 
the  adjacent  Dutch  islands. 

New  Zealand  now  is  the  home  of  some  eight  hundred 
thousand  whites,  while  three  and  a half  millions  more 
are  near  the  coast-line  of  Australia,  with  unlimited  room 
for  expansion.  All  the  British  Churches  are  represented 


The  Southern  Cross 


207 


here,  and  there  is  a movement  for  uniting  the  sections 
of  Protestantism.  Meantime  there  are  several  missionary- 
societies,  maintaining  more  than  three  hundred  -workers 
abroad,  and  employing  about  five  thousand  native 
converts  to  extend  the  Gospel.  Most  of  these  labour  in 
India  or  China,  though  the  islands  of  the  vicinity,  and 
even  Africa,  receive  attention. 


3,  The  New  Forces  in  India 

Little  the  present  careth  for  the  past. 

Too  little,  ’tis  not  well ! 

For  careless  ones  we  dwell 
Beneath  the  mighty  shadow  it  hath  cast. 

Our  sword  hath  swept  o’er  India ; there  remains 
A nobler  conquest  far. 

The  mind’s  ethereal  war, 

That  but  subdues  to  civilise  its  plains. 

Let  us  pay  back  the  past  the  debt  we  owe. 

Let  us  around  dispense 
Light,  hope,  intelligence. 

Till  blessings  track  our  steps  where’er  we  go. 

L.  E.  Landon. 

The  native  Tamil  Church  of  St.  Thomas  has  lost 
its  missionary  tradition ; and  despite  the  interest  shown 
in  it,  first  by  the  Koman  Cathohcs  and  then  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  it  prefers  an  isolated  existence  by  its 
stUl  lagoons,  where  no  current  of  life  in-vigorates  it,  or  stirs 
it  to  arise  and  preach. 

The  labours  of  the  Danes  and  Germans  during  the 
eighteenth  century  were  in  the  South,  the  land  of  the 


208 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


Dravidians,  with  their  spacious  and  ornate  temples, 
sheltering  in  their  inmost  precincts  some  elephant  or 
peacock  to  receive  the  popular  worship  and  gifts.  But  as 
the  power  of  Haidar  Ah  waned,  the  pohtical  attention  of 
Europe  was  diverted  by  Clive  to  the  plains  of  Bengal, 
and  a new  field  opened  for  Christian  missionaries.  The 
turning  point  is  well  marked  by  the  death  of  Schwartz  in 
1798  A.D.,  and  the  arrival  next  year  of  four  Enghshmen  to 
reinforce  Carey.  The  British  authorities  at  Calcutta 
had  been  discussing  the  question  of  missions,  and  though 
they  tolerated  Kiernander  and  some  devoted  chaplains, 
they  dechned  to  further  this  new  departure,  so  that  the 
headquarters  were  placed  at  Serampur,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Danes,  as  in  the  south.  Here  the  translating 
of  the  Bible  was  pushed  ahead  on  a scale  that  has  cast 
into  the  shade  the  Dutch  and  Danish  pioneering.  Within 
a generation,  portions  of  the  Bible  in  more  than  forty 
Asiatic  dialects  were  translated  and  printed  on  the  Seram- 
pur press.  Schools  were  planted,  native  literature  was 
fostered.  Western  agriculture  and  horticulture  were  intro- 
duced ; and  while  the  EngHsh  at  length  honoured  and 
supported  the  work  of  these  humble  artisans,  Denmark 
granted  a charter  for  a university  in  all  branches  of 
learning,  the  first  to  be  estabhshed  in  Asia.  After  many 
years  of  neglect,  this  seems  likely  now  to  be  utilised  for 
Christian  education. 

The  enterprise  was  not  confined  to  a httle  rural  town. 
Carey  was  a statesman,  and  planned  Oriental  missions 
thence  ; while  he  at  once  divined  the  evils  of  caste,  and 


Hinduism 


209 


excluded  it  from  the  Church,  he  devised  expeditions, 
like  Asoka  of  eld,  to  occupy  Bengal,  Burma,  Orissa, 
Bhutan,  and  the  Ganges  valley.  China  being  still  sealed, 
every  available  island  on  the  route  thither  was  supphed 
with  workers.  The  great  zeal  and  success  of  the  Baptist 
. band  kindled  the  emulation  of  others,  and  into  India 
poured  reinforcements  of  all  denominations  and  from 
many  countries.  To-day  more  than  a hundred  societies 
from  every  department  of  Protestant  Christendom  are 
represented  by  four  thousand  white  workers,  super- 
intending or  aided  by  twenty-five  thousand  natives, 
who  can  gather  four  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
communicants. 

The  problem  is  harder  than  it  was  twelve  centuries 
i ago  ; duties  that  are  neglected  seldom  become  the  easier. 
Then  there  was  but  one  organised  rehgion  to  deal  with  ; to- 
day the  situation  is  more  complex.  The  original  Buddhism 
j is  to  be  found,  migrated  to  Burma  and  Ceylon,  where  it 
has  combined  with  native  elements  and  produced  types 
of  religion  deeply  rooted.  The  Dutch  were  unable  to 
effect  much,  and  to-day  evangelistic  methods  do  not  seem 
to  attract,  though  educational  advantages  seem  to  appeal 
] to  the  upper  classes. 

Milhons  of  people  of  all  races  are  to  be  classified  as 
“ Hindus,”  though  this  most  elastic  term  tells  nothing 
with  certainty  except  that  cow-killing  is  a sacrilege,  and 
that  there  is  a caste  system,  with  the  Brahman  at  the 
head,  revered  almost  as  a god.  At  one  end  of  the  scale 
may  be  found  philosophers  whose  pantheism  nearly 
IS 


210 


Replanting  in  Asia 


excludes  real  religion ; at  the  other  are  mere  beast-wor- 
shippers, who  verify  the  old  thought  that  they  become 
hke  to  what  they  adore.  Yet  perhaps  it  is  fair  to  refer 
to  the  Ramayana  and  the  Maha  Bharata,  the  Puranas, 
and  the  Tantras  as  showing  the  atmosphere  of  Hinduism. 
This  is  what  will  be  found  in  two  households  out  of  every 
three  throughout  the  land,  with  the  women  engraining 
superstition  and  magic  into  their  impressionable  children. 
Idols  and  pilgrims  on  all  hands  attest  the  hold  on  the 
people  of  this  conglomerate  of  faiths.  Twice  have 
Christian  elements  been  absorbed,  and  twice  have  they 
disappeared  in  the  great  slough.  When  the  engineers 
were  crossing  Chat  Moss,  they  almost  lost  heart  as  the 
bog  engulfed  their  material,  till  it  occurred  to  them  to 
drain  away  the  water  as  well  as  to  deposit  ballast. 
The  fetid  mass  of  Hinduism  is  already  being  drained  of 
its  most  impure  and  repulsive  elements  ; widow-burning 
is  now  punished  as  murder,  and  we  may  presently  see 
the  exception  abohshed  which  tolerates  impurity  and 
obscenity  when  in  the  cause  of  rehgion. 

While  caste  holds  together  large  groups,  the  family 
system  binds  together  others  within  the  caste,  so  that  an 
individual  hfe  is  impossible,  and  few  dare  even  to  think 
for  themselves.  Jacob  kept  Leah,  Rachel,  Bilhah,  and 
Zilpah  in  different  tents  ; had  he  put  them  all  under  the 
rule  of  Rehekah,  we  can  see  the  shght  chance  he  would 
have  had  to  confiscate  the  ancestral  teraphim,  and  to 
introduce  a purer  faith.  Add  to  these  forms  of  associa- 
tion the  rising  patriotism  that  leads  many  Hindus  to 


The  Power  of  Poetry 


211 


agitate  against  the  foreign  dominion,  and  the  difficulties 
seem  to  multiply. 

One  obvious  line  of  approach  has  been  seldom  taken  with 
any  perseverance — ^religious  poetry.  Students  of  early 
history  remember  that  Axius  won  his  followers  by  popular 
hymns  ; the  influence  of  Csedmon  and  Aldhehn  in  England 
was  more  pervasive  if  less  conspicuous  than  that  of 
Augustine  and  Aidan ; the  German  poem  of  the  Heiland 
and  the  Huguenot  verses  of  Clement  Marot  were  distinctly 
successful  missionary  enterprises.  So  has  it  been  in 
India.  The  two  great  epics,  it  can  hardly  be  repeated  too 
often,  are  the  popular  Bible  of  the  Hindus.  What  we  have 
done  on  these  lines  is  as  yet  feeble.  A few  Bengali  ballads 
and  an  Uriya  poem  on  the  fife  of  the  Saviour  represent 
nearly  aU  that  has  been  accomplished.  When  some  native 
poet  shall  arise  to  write  a Paradise  Lost  or  a Paradise 
Regained,  or  to  dream  of  an  Indian  Pilgrim's  Progress 
from  the  City  of  Destruction,  or  to  sing  of  the  Holy  Wa/r — 
then  all  experience  shows  that  we  are  warranted  in  expect- 
ing God  will  bless  the  power  of  sacred  song. 

Hinduism  is  a subtle  enemy,  capable  of  swaUowing 
anything ; and  this  eclectic  spirit  is  congenial  to  most  of 
the  inhabitants  of  India,  insomuch  that  the  very  Muslims 
in  their  lower  ranks  are  organised  on  caste  lines.  The 
arrogance  of  the  Brahman  is  challenged  by  some  mission- 
aries with  even  loftier  pretensions ; for  though  the 
Brahman  claims  to  be  divine,  he  has  never  ventured  to 
claim  that  he  makes  his  god.  Such  sacerdotalism,  how- 
ever, though  practised  in  the  name  of  the  Church,  is  utterly 


212 


Replanting  in  Asia 


foreign  to  real  Christianity,  and  the  meek  and  lowly 
spirit  is  urged  by  our  Master ; while  the  doctrine  that 
not  Brahmans  alone,  but  all  Christians  are  twice-born, 
that  not  Brahmans  alone,  but  all  Christians  are  priests  to 
God,  robs  them  of  the  uniqueness  of  their  claims. 

Missionaries  who  care  little  for  the  past,  and  think  that, 
as  India  has  no  written  history,  it  too  is  independent  of 
the  past,  will  carry  on  their  work  with  an  unconscious 
appeal  to  the  Bible  as  if  what  is  authoritative  to  them 
will  carry  weight  with  the  native.  Their  teaching  can 
hardly  strike  root  into  the  past,  and  for  good  or  for  evil 
is  a new  thing.  Others  have  sought  to  graft  theirs  on  to 
the  old  stock  of  the  Tamil  Church,  and  vivify  this  shoot 
from  the  ancient  Syrian  root  on  the  Euphrates  ; but  this 
seems  no  more  responsive  to  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
than  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  Dr.  Grierson  is  now  urging 
that  we  attend  to  the  modifications  produced  in  Hinduism 
by  ancient  Christianity,  and  seek  to  modify  still  further 
till  the  error  is  expelled.  To  this  some  reply  that  there 
is  no  such  filiation  as  he  alleges  ; but  whatever  the  origin, 
it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  suggestion  as  to  future 
method  is  mistaken,  for  Paul  at  Athens  did  not  hesitate 
to  reinforce  his  message  by  an  appeal  to  what  their  own 
poets  had  said. 

A third  great  section  of  the  people  is  Muslim.  On  the 
Ganges  these  formed  a ruling  race  till  the  British  advent, 
and  this  memory  is  ever  in  their  subconsciousness.  Con- 
sider also  that  Mushm  law  is  recognised  and  administered  ; 
recoUect  that  by  that  law — if  pressed  strictly,  as  it  is  not 


Kill  GtOLIath  with  his  Sword  213 

here — the  conversion  of  a Muslim  is  a crime  punishable 
with  death  ; add  the  intense  pride  that  causes  a true  Muslim 
to  look  down  on  even  the  haughty  Brahman  : so  we  see 
a net  of  difficulties  in  the  missionary’s  path.  The  Roman 
Catholic  is  further  handicapped  by  what  the  Muslim  con- 
temptuously styles  his  idolatry,  which  for  three  centuries 
has  barred  aU  access.  Not  adaptation  is  needed  here, 
but  intelligent  opposition.  The  dangerous  antagonist  of 
Christianity  is  the  man  who  knows  his  Bible  and  the 
standard  works  of  theology  ; and  if  he  is  an  apostate 
minister  he  becomes  reaUy  formidable.  So  what  is  needed 
here  is  the  man  who  knows  his  Qur’an  thoroughly,  able 
to  cite  chapter  and  verse  in  the  Arabic,  ready  to  refer  to 
the  Muhammadan  theologians.  A most  efiective  line 
of  attack  was  indicated  in  a little  tract  by  Dr.  Rouse, 
taking  the  statements  in  the  Qur’an  as  to  Muhammad 
and  Christ,  and  comparing  the  two  as  depicted  on  this 
authority  unchallenged  by  the  Muslims. 

The  rest  of  the  people — not  Buddhist  or  Hindu  or  Muslim, 
some  ten  millions  in  all — are  of  low  Animist  practice. 
It  is  from  these  races  that  converts  are  chiefly  won ; but 
unfortunately  they  are  being  won  by  each  of  the  three 
great  religions.  The  Hindu  yogi  goes  to  a hill  tribe  and 
slowly  impregnates  it  with  the  conception  of  caste.  The 
Muslim  faqir  will  take  over  the  local  god  as  an  orthodox 
saint,  and  induce  the  villagers  to  be  circumcised,  then 
insist  on  their  keeping  the  whole  law.  The  Buddhist 
monk  will  win  a few  lads  to  put  on  the  yellow  robe  and 
study  awhile  at  the  pagoda.  It  is  true  that  Christian 


214 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


missionaries  find  tlieir  easiest  field  here  ; but  we  must  not 
blink  tbe  fact  that  aU  tbe  lower  castes,  many  of  tbe  Bengali 
Muslims,  and  aU  tbe  Burmese  Buddhists,  are  only  tbe 
descendants  of  converted  Animists ; even  to-day  eacb  of 
these  three  rehgions  wins  more  converts  than  does  Chris- 
tianity. 

This,  then,  is  the  most  pressing  problem  of  the  moment, 
to  gain  all  these  ten  millions  before  they  are  absorbed  by 
the  other  faiths.  Of  every  hundred  recruits  to  Christianity 
in  India,  ninety-five  seem  to  be  from  these  peoples,  or  from 
those  who  have  but  lately  passed  over  to  form  a low 
caste.  Thinkers  on  the  spot  ask  that  we  cease  reinforcing 
the  men  who  batter  at  the  stone  walls  of  Islam  and  caste,' 
and  that  we  treble  or  quadruple  those  who  are  invited 
in  at  the  open  gateways  of  the  out-caste  villages.  Again 
and  again  missionaries  are  appealed  to  for  teachers  who 
will  guide  the  earnest  inquirer,  but  they  have  not  the 
men  to  send.  It  would  seem  time  to  warn  solemnly  the 
imheeding  MusUm  and  Hindu  : “ Seeing  you  judge  your- 
selves miworthy  of  eternal  life,  lo,  we  turn  to  the  hill 
tribes  ! ” When  salvation  comes  to  these,  and  the  despised 
aborigines  rise  into  new  manliness,  the  others  may  be  pro- 
voked to  emulation.  Meantime  delay  may  result  in  the 
last  remnant  becoming  inoculated  and  unresponsive  to 
Christian  invitation. 

The  pohtical  situation  has  greatly  changed,  and  presents 
a close  analogy  to  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  when  Chris- 
tianity was  in  its  early  days.  The  only  European  Power 
that  has  importance  in  India  is  that  of  Britain,  which 


State  Neutrality 


215 


directly  governs  231,000,000  out  of  294,000,000.  In  its 
territories  there  is  full  liberty  of  propagation,  and  the 
workers  can  claim  and  receive  protection  so  long  as  they 
abstain  from  public  outrage  on  other  rehgions.  If  there  is 
no  active  support,  there  is,  at  least,  a free  field  and  abun- 
dant opportunity.  The  native  rulers  of  the  rest  of  the 
land  are  aU  bound  by  treaties  to  Britain ; but  in  some 
cases  they  have  the  right  to  exclude  aU  foreigners,  and 
they  do  actually  forbid  missions  in  a very  few  cases.  The 
importance  of  this  field  is  well  recognised,  as  the  presence 
of  more  than  three  thousand  foreign  missionaries  attests. 


t 4.  The  Outlook  in  China 

Where  are  the  mighty  forests, 

And  giant  ferns  of  old. 

That  in  primeval  silence 
Strange  leaf  and  frond  unrolled  ? 

Not  lost ! For  now  they  shine  and  blaze. 

The  light  and  warmth  of  Christmas  days. 

Where  is  the  seed  we  scatter, 

With  weak  and  trembhng  hand, 

Beside  the  gloomy  waters, 

Or  on  the  arid  land  ? 

Not  losj; ! For  after  many  days 
’ Our  prayer  and  toil  shall  turn  to  praise. 

F.  R.  Haveegal. 

Modern  China  presents  very  different  problems.  The 
flowery  kingdom  has  been  evangehsed  by  the  Persians, 
who  erected  the  tablet  at  Si-Ngan-Fu,  again  by  the 
Persians  in  the  wake  of  the  Mongols,  by  the  Italian  friars 


216 


Replanting  in  Asia 


overland,  and  again  by  tbe  Jesuits  from  tbe  coast.  After 
four  successes  came  four  failures ; then  a century  ago 
Protestantism  made  its  appearance  in  tbe  person  of  Robert 
Morrison.  Presently  from  Canton  and  Serampur  appeared 
two  Chinese  Bibles,  and  the  note  was  struck  that  inter- 
ested a literary  nation.  Other  ports  were  reluctantly 
opened,  and  the  inland  territory  is  at  last  legahsed  for 
missionary  travel  and  residence. 

Two  national  characteristics  have  to  be  most  seriously 
reckoned  with — the  educational  system,  the  patriotism  ; 
while  there  is  hardly  any  real  rehgious  difficulty.  Until 
the  last  three  years,  education  was  entirely  on  classic 
literature  ; mathematics,  art,  science,  medicine,  etc.,  were 
either  utterly  ignored  or  studied  on  the  hnes  laid  down 
centuries  before.  Now  the  whole  curriculum  is  changed, 
and  Western  learning  is  made  the  qualification  for  office. 
The  opportunity  is  tremendous,  and  is  fleeting.  In  ten 
years  China  will  have  her  own  teachers  of  the  new  subjects  ; 
but  at  this  moment  she  must  borrow  them,  or  send  her 
students  abroad.  Unless  Christians  rise  to  the  occasion, 
white  men  who  are  indifferent  to  rehgion  may  train  atheist 
teachers  ; or  Japan  may  supply  an  inferior  article  that  is 
a colourable  imitation  of  what  is  needed.  We  have  the 
invitation  to  mould  the  leaders  of  a nation  ; India  calls 
us  to  the  lowest  classes,  China  to  the  highest. 

The  Chinese  are  intensely  patriotic,  and  for  this  reason 
have  rejected  or  extirpated  the  Gospel  in  the  past ; we 
are  without  excuse  after  the  Boxer  riots  if  we  fail  to  learn 
the  lesson.  They  keenly  resent  foreign  interference. 


No  Active  Religion 


217 


whether  as  taking  commercial  concessions  or  extra-ter- 
ritorial rights,  or  leased  districts,  or  spheres  of  influence. 
In  their  own  estimation  their  civilisation  is  superior  to 
ours  in  essentials,  although  they  can  borrow  from  us 
some  of  the  manual  arts.  If  we  fail  to  comprehend  this 
attitude  and  adjust  ourselves  to  it,  we  only  prepare 
a recurrence  of  the  catastrophes  which  have  already 
overtaken  missions. 

There  is  no  aggressive  religion  to  encounter.  Taoism, 
Buddhism,  and  Confucianism  make  no  progress,  and 
barely  offer  any  resistance  ; while  even  Islam,  elsewhere  so 
militant,  is  content  to  live  in  Chinese  fashion,  and  let 
live.  The  real  difficulty  on  the  religious  side  is  the  omni- 
present superstition,  which  seems  a rank  undergrowth 
persisting  through  all  changes  and  under  all  nominal 
faiths.  The  one  higher  type  that  is  formidable  is  the 
worship  of  ancestors,  which  is  observed  in  every  home, 
but  affords  no  social  bond  in  the  village  or  town.  Honour 
to  father  and  mother,  is  a duty  of  Christians  as  well  as 
Jews  ; pride  in  ancestry  may  inspire  to  noble  life,  but 
beyond  this  it  is  dangerous  to  go  in  meeting  the  Chinese  ; 
and  the  line  of  approach  would  seem  to  be  to  raise  their 
veneration  from  earthly  fathers  to  the  Father  in  heaven. 
The  Jesuit  compromise  is  not  adopted  by  Protestants. 

Confucianism  is,  in  truth,  not  a religion,  but  rather  a 
code  of  manners.  It  has  successfully  blended  with  other 
religions,  and  can  doubtless  blend  with  Christianity. 
Nor  does  there  seem  any  reason  why  it  should  not ; for 
there  is  nothing  really  antagonistic  to  Christian  principles 


218 


Replanting  in  Asia 


in  tlie  teachings  of  the  CMnese  sage,  though,  of  course, 
he  falls  short  of  the  standard  held  up  by  Christ. 

The  Chinese  are  for  the  moment  ready  to  welcome 
Western  teachers,  and  emphasise  their  desire  for  educators 
and  medical  men,  though  the  response  is  hardly  equal  to 
the  demand.  Moreover,  there  is  already  disillusionment, 
and  some  foresee  that  they  will  be  flung  aside  like  squeezed 
oranges,  so  prefer  to  extricate  themselves  from  a false 
position.  So  rapid  are  the  changes  just  now  that  experi- 
enced men  find  the  kaleidoscope  has  taken  a fresh  turn 
during  a short  furlough,  and  wonder  whether  the  opened 
doors  are  already  closing. 

Meantime  the  missionaries  lay  the  greatest  stress  on 
personal  dealing.  Some  find  that  in  an  obscure  home 
they  can  welcome  many  a Nicodemus ; others  invite 
themselves  to  the  house  of  a Zacchaeus,  or  inquire  who  in 
a city  is  worthy,  and  try  to  meet  his  needs.  Then  comes 
the  stage  when  the  natives  take  up  the  work,  and  it  spreads 
from  house  to  house  like  strawberry-runners.  The  elders, 
who  in  Chinese  society  receive  such  deference,  find  pre- 
cedents in  the  Acts  for  their  becoming  guides,  and  so  a 
native  Church  spreads  over  the  countryside. 

Thoughtless  reproduction  of  our  developed  Western 
customs  has  burdened  many  native  churches  with  the 
support  of  pastors.  Experience  of  financial  strain  and 
suspicion  of  mercenary  motives  has  led  to  a closer  study 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  more  and  more  places  to 
the  shepherding  of  the  flock  by  an  unpaid  committee  of 
natives,  supervised  at  present  by  foreign  organisers. 


The  Fifth  Opportunity 


219 


The  awful  scandal  of  the  Opium  Trafidc  seems  at  last 
about  to  disappear,  and  missionaries  will  no  longer  be 
handicapped  by  this  evidence  that  white  men  are  not  aU 
possessed  of  the  spirit  of  Christ,  If  the  opportunity  of 
these  few  years  can  be  seized,  then  the  splendid  tenacity 
of  the  race,  which  was  exemphfied  on  a small  scale  when 
the  recent  riots  did  not  cause  apostasy  or  extinction,  may 
avail  to  produce  a strong  and  sturdy  branch  of  Christendom 
in  this  populous  land. 


5.  The  Value  op  Japan 

These  shores  forsake,  to  future  ages  due ; 

A world  of  islands  claims  thy  happier  view. 

Where  lavish  Nature  aU  her  bounty  pours. 

And  flowers  and  fruits  of  every  fragrance  showers. 

Japan  behold : beneath  the  globe’s  broad  face 
Northward  she  sinks,  the  nether  seas  embrace 
Her  eastern  bounds.  What  glorious  fruitage  there, 
Illustrious  Gama,  shall  thy  labours  bear  ! 

How  bright  a silver  mine,  when  Heaven’s  own  lore 
From  pagan  dross  shall  purify  her  ore. 

Camoens. 

Japan  is  a modern  mission  field  with  not  fifty  years 
of  work  from  which  to  augur  its  future,  indeed  with  only 
a third  of  a century  since  edicts  against  Christianity  were 
silently  removed  as  obsolete.  When  the  Roman  Cathohc 
missionaries  re-entered  the  empire,  they  certainly  found 
survivals  of  the  early  Jesuit  endeavour ; but  they  barely 
lead  even  now  with  a community  of  fifty  thousand.  It 
deserves  notice  that  the  immobile  Russian  Church 


220 


Replanting  in  Asia 


has  for  once  undertaken  foreign  work,  and  with  five 
hundred  native  agents  has  brought  together  some  twenty - 
five  thousand  converts.  This  is  thoroughly  abnormal,  and 
the  recent  war  is  not  likely  to  increase  the  facilities  for 
this  section  of  Christendom. 

Japan  was  forced  open  by  the  United  States,  and 
Christian  Americans  rose  to  the  responsibihty  by  pro- 
viding most  of  the  seven  hundred  labourers  who  to-day 
have  gathered  fifty  thousand  converts  into  native  churches, 
many  of  them  men  in  the  front  rank  of  thinkers  and 
statesmen. 

The  religions  in  possession  were  Shinto  and  Buddhism. 
The  former  even  as  restored  hardly  dare  call  itself  a 
religion,  though  it  expresses  the  ancient  faith  and  prac- 
tice ; perhaps  its  strength  to-day  is  in  its  intense  patriot- 
ism, which  impels  a man  to  face  all  risks  on  behalf  of  his 
land  and  his  Mikado.  Add  to  this  the  ancestor-worship 
which  prevails  in  most  families,  and  we  have  two  familiar 
factors  which  must  be  recognised,  transformed,  and  taken 
up  into  any  Japanese  Christianity.  The  fortunes  of 
Buddhism  here  illustrate  well  the  versatile  and  imitative 
propensities  of  the  people.  It  spread  over  the  land, 
amalgamating  with  the  native  customs,  till  the  Buddhists 
of  the  mainland  viewed  the  result  askance.  A revival  of 
Shinto  seemed  to  dethrone  it,  but  the  monks  prove  them- 
selves ready  to  lay  hands  on  anything  if  only  they  can 
preserve  their  predominance.  If,  then,  it  seems  to  the 
authorities  that  Japan  can  only  secure  her  place  in  the 
family  of  Western  nations  by  adopting  Christianity, 


Hesitating  Thomases 


221 


officially  or  semi-officially,  the  great  body  of  Buddhist 
monks  will  have  to  be  seriously  reckoned  with  as 
likely  to  try  and  capture  all  the  machinery  of  the 
Church. 

A great  blow  has  been  struck  at  their  influence  by  rules 
which  bar  out  from  the  public  schools  all  rehgious  teaching. 
They  have  not  the  zeal  to  found  their  own,  while  the 
mission  schools  are  steadily  training  thousands  of  pupils 
on  Christian  lines.  As  Japan  needs  no  industrial  or 
medical  missions,  the  other  chief  avenue  to  success  is  the 
simple  method  of  preaching  or  of  social  intercourse.  There 
are  serious  defects  in  the  national  character,  of  truth,  depth, 
honesty,  and  purity ; and  some  observers  fear  that  these 
will  militate  against  the  adoption  of  Christianity.  But 
the  message  of  Jesus  Christ  is  precisely  that  His  grace 
will  supply  whatever  is  lacking.  Dr.  William  Eliot 
Griffis,  who  has  had  much  to  do  with  education  for 
the  Government,  and  so  is  competent  to  form  a sound 
estimate  of  the  outlook,  takes  a somewhat  hopeful 
view  ; — 

“ I believe  that  the  Japanese  will  be  a great  Christian 
nation,  because  they  are  the  type  of  men  who  first  imitate 
in  order  to  master  ; then  reflect  and  compare  ; then  take 
out  what  is  vital  and  harmonise  it  with  their  own  spiritual 
life — or  rather,  harmonise  their  own  spiritual  life  with 
what  is  vital  to  Christianity.  Of  course,  the  growth  will 
be  very  slow.  All  the  talk  about  the  Japanese  adopting 
a state  religion  is  perfect  nonsense.  Christianity  in 
Japan  has  a vital  and  normal  growth,  and  the  Japanese 


222 


Replanting  in  Asia 


are  mastering  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity.  They  are 
more  desirous  of  finding  out  what  Jesus  taught  than  all 
that  has  been  added  to  Christianity ; and  they  want  to 
be  independent  of  all  foreign  control.  They  claim  the 
right  of  learning  from  Christ  directly,  and  doing  what  we 
have  done,  namely,  put  Christianity  into  the  form  best 
suited  to  the  national  life.  This  does  not  mean  that  they 
will  not  warmly  and  gratefully  accept  the  teaching, 
advice,  and  help  of  foreigners ; but  they  are  determined, 
for  the  most  part,  that  the  native  Church  organisation 
shall  be  Japanese,  not  Yankee  or  British  or  German. 
There  seems  to  me  very  httle  hope  for  Enghsh,  Scottish, 
or  American  religion  in  Japan.  But  for  the  religion  of 
Jesus  Christ,  suited  to  the  Japanese  mind  and  land, 
there  are  hopes  that  remind  me  of  an  unclouded 
sunrise.” 

There  may  then  arise  a new  Oriental  Church,  appreciat- 
ing features  in  the  Gospel  which  are  m the  shade  for  us, 
and  practising  on  lines  which  we  have  dismissed  as  merely 
ideal.  If  in  any  way,  or  from  any  motive,  there  arise  a 
strong  Christian  Church  in  Japan,  this  island  empire 
will  have  to  be  reckoned  on  as  the  nearest  and  most  im- 
portant base  of  operations  on  the  great  and  trustworthy 
nation  of  China,  now  slowly  girding  herself  to  take  some 
active  share  in  the  world’s  history.  Already,  indeed,  the 
students  of  India  have  been  impressed  by  a deputation  of 
Japanese,  who  showed  that  Christianity  is  not  a religion 
for  foreign  rulers  alone,  but  also  has  elements  that  com- 
mend it  to  Asia. 


Muhammad  or  Christ? 


223 


6.  The  Cradle  op  Christendom 

The  pale-faced  Frank  among  them  sits ; what  brought  him  from 
afar  ? 

Nor  bears  he  bales  of  merchandise,  nor  teaches  skill  in  war: 

One  pearl  alone  he  brings  with  him,  the  Book  of  Life  and  Death ; 

One  warfare  only  teaches  he,  to  fight  the  fight  of  faith. 

And  Iran’s  sons  are  round  him,  and  one  with  solemn  tone, 

Tells  how  the  Lord  of  Glory  was  rejected  by  Has  own ; 

Tells  from  the  wondrous  Gospel,  of  the  trial  and  the  doom. 

The  words  Divine  of  love  and  might,  the  scourge,  the  cross,  the 
tomb.  Alfoed, 

Westward  we  reacli  again  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Turkey- 
in-Asia,  now  all  Muslim.  Here  are  sprinkled  thinly 
over  the  land  the  few  remnants  of  once  mighty  Churches, 
which  Home  and  Canterbury  and  Moscow  are  seeking  to 
influence,  but  which  seem  cowed  by  misfortune  and  quite 
imable  to  arise  and  preach  the  Gospel.  Once  it  went  to 
India,  which  to-day  holds  some  sixty  millions  of  Muslims  ; 
once  it  went  to  China,  which  to-day  holds  thirty  millions  ; 
once  it  went  to  Central  Asia,  where  to-day  Eussia  rules 
flfteen  millions.  Now  the  Christians  here  are  submerged 
beneath  thirty  million  Mushms,  under  Muslim  rulers, 
where  Muslim  laws  are  in  force,  so  that  direct  propagation 
of  the  Gospel  is  illegal,  and  where  massacre  of  Christians 
is  frequent.  The  cuckoo  of  Islam  has  usurped  the  nest  of 
Christendom,  and  all  but  emptied  it  of  its  natural  inhabi- 
tants. The  land  of  Abraham,  Kebekah,  and  Eachel,  the 
land  over  which  Ishmael  wandered,  the  land  where  Israel 
wrestled  with  God  and  prevailed,  the  land  that  sheltered 


224 


Replanting  in  Asia 


Joseph  and  a greater  than  Joseph,  the  land  whence  Cyrus 
came  to  free  the  captives  of  Babylon — all  these  lands  are 
to-day  the  citadel  of  Islam.  Christian  Antioch  and  Alex- 
andria and  Ephesus  and  Babylon  have  been  supplanted 
by  Mushm  Damascus  and  Cairo  and  Smyrna  and  Baghdad, 
which  with  Teheran  and  Cabul  aU  look  up  to  Mecca. 

Such  facts  bring  us  face  to  face  with  the  deeper  problem 
of  Islam,  not  simply  viewed  as  a rival  missionary  force, 
but  as  a possible  field  of  missionary  effort. 

The  progress  of  Islam  has  slackened,  if  not  stopped. 
She  rehed  first  on  her  sword,  and  her  story  avouches  afresh 
that  they  who  take  the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword. 
In  response  to  the  Berber  attack  upon  Spain,  Spanish 
mihtary  orders  were  formed  and  regained  the  Peninsula 
for  Christendom.  French  crusades  to  Egypt  and  Tunis 
taught  the  Muslims  that  they  were  not  invincible,  and 
during  last  century  the  political  power  passed  from  Islam 
in  half  the  north  coast  of  Africa.  Beyond  the  Black 
Sea  and  in  Central  Asia  the  Mushms  have  passed  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Muscovite.  The  empire  of  the  Mughals  in 
India  fell  to  pieces,  and  no  Muslim  ruler  sits  on  his  divan 
there  without  a British  officer  in  the  background.  Even 
on  the  Danube  the  Crescent  has  ceased  to  shine,  and  barely 
three  millions  of  Muslims  stiU  cling  around  the  northern 
shores  of  the  .^gean.  Politically  Islam  is  a waning  force, 
nor  are  its  rulers  more  united  than  the  monarchs  of  Chris- 
tian Europe. 

She  has  taken  to  more  peaceful  methods,  and  has  found 
a son  of  Christian  parents  to  boast  of  the  preaching  of 


Islam  Vulnerable 


225 


Islam.  Admittedly  some  progress  has  been  made,  and  is 
still  being  made,  where  this  preaching  is  to  races  lower  in 
the  social  scale  ; bnt  the  adoption  of  this  agency  is  a tribute 
to  the  vitality  of  Christian  methods.  Islam  has  in  some 
quarters  lost  confidence  in  herself,  and  Doctor  MiUer 
declares : “ A very  significant  change  has  perceptibly 
come  over  the  Moslem  in  West  Africa  ; I believe  the  time 
is  ripe  for  a tremendous  propaganda  to  a broken-spirited 
but  still  proud  people.”  ^ 

Experience  attests  that  we  are  mistaken  in  thinking 
that  the  inoculation  against  Christianity  is  perfect.  The 
Malays  of  Java  and  Sumatra  are  being  rapidly  reclaimed 
from  Islam  and,  won  for  Christ.  India  has  yielded  many 
converts,  and  Persia  also.  Egypt  itself  has  seen  a student 
at  A1  Azhar  confess  Jesus.  That  Christianity  has  some- 
thing attractive  and  noble  let  Bosworth  Smith,  a friend  of 
Islam,  testify : “ The  religion  of  Christ  contains  whole 
fields  of  morality  and  whole  realms  of  thought  which  are 
aU  but  ^outside  the  religion  of  Muhammad.  It  opens 
humihty,  purity  of  heart,  forgiveness  of  injuries,  sacrifice 
of  self  to  man’s  moral  nature ; development,  boundless 
progress  to  his  mind.”  On  the  other  hand,  listen  to  a few 
recent  estimates  of  Islam,  not  from  missionaries,  but  from 
men  of  the  world  who  have  seen  it  at  close  quarters  ; the 
names  of  Palgrave,  Stanley,  Lane-Poole,  and  Colvin  should 
carry  weight : — 

“ Islam  is  in  its  essence  stationary.”  ^ “ As  a social 


i6 


^ The  Mohammedan  World  of  To-day,  p.  49. 
^ Central  and  Eastern  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  372. 


226 


Replanting  in  Asia 


system  Islam  is  a complete  failure.”  ^ “A  scheme  of 
social  life  which  rests  for  its  authority  on  the  unfruitful 
traditions  of  doctors  of  divinity.  . . . does  not  admit  of 
sustained  and  continuous  progress.  Every  step  forward 
is  barred  by  some  ancient  ordinance  claiming  Divine  origin, 
or  the  supreme  authority  of  tradition.  There  are  the  gross 
evils  of  sanctioned  concubinage  and  of  polygamy,  with  their 
baleful  effect  on  the  home-life  and  character  of  the  family 
and  on  the  education  of  children  ; the  seclusion  of  women, 
with  all  that  it  imphes — both  for  those  who  are  immured 
and  for  the  sex  from  whose  social  intercourse  is  excluded 
the  most  softening  and  humanising  element  available  to 
it.  The  divine  ordinance  ^ of  slavery  must  be  reckoned 
with,  which  degrades  the  dignity  of  labour  and  of  iudustry, 
no  less  than  the  ideal  of  humanity.  Finally,  there  is  the 
reluctance  of  the  fatahst  to  improve  upon  the  position 
designed  for  him  by  his  Creator.  . . . The  majority  of  the 
other  native  inhabitants  ” of  the  southern  Sudan,  “ though 
professing  Islam,  are  httle  better  than  their  brethren. 
Ignorance  and  superstition  characterise  the  Sudan  as  a 
whole.”  ® 

In  face  of  this  we  need  to  be  reminded  by  Professor 
Lansing  that  “ the  doctrine  of  fatalism  commonly  accred- 
ited to  Islam  is  not  one  half  so  fatahstic  in  its  spirit  and 
operation  as  that  which  for  thirteen  centuries  has  been 
practically  held  by  the  Christian  Church  as  to  the  hope 
of  bringing  the  hosts  of  Islam  into  the  following  of  Jesus 

1 Selections.  * i.e.,  ordained  by  Muhammad’s  god. 

® Making  of  Modern  Egypt,  pp.  409,  368. 


Laymen  Wanted 


227 


Christ.”  ^ The  practical  question  is,  along  what  lines 
can  we  hope  to  approach,  especially  in  these  lands  where 
Muslim  law  can  be  enforced  at  the  will  of  Sultan  or  Shah  ? 

Since  direct  evangelism  is  illegal,  legal  methods  deserve 
first  consideration.  Preaching  the  Gospel  is  indeed  the 
command  of  Christ ; and  in  face  of  that  it  is  not  true  that 
the  law  of  Muhammad  enforced  by  the  power  of  any 
Muslim  state  is  of  any  authority.  But  a wise  man  will 
ponder  carefully  whether  in  any  given  circumstances  he 
is  justified  in  defying  the  local  law,  at  the  risk  of  pre- 
judicing his  cause,  losing  his  life,  and  hindering  the  labours 
of  others  who  in  their  own  way  are  unmolested. 

Obviously,  the  chief  work,  that  will  excite  little  or  no 
opposition,  is  that  of  laymen  and  of  women.  The  teaching 
of  the  past  is  clear  on  this  point.  Francis  of  Assisi  was 
a layman  ; he  not  only  founded  an  enthusiastic  society 
of  laymen  who  within  forty  years  had  penetrated  North 
Africa  and  the  limits  of  China,  but  he  in  person  went  to 
Egypt  and  spoke  of  Christ  to  the  Sultan.  Ramon  Lull 
was  a layman,  one  of  the  greatest  missionary  statesmen 
that  the  world  has  known,  and  he,  too,  went  once  and 
again  to  tell  of  the  Saviour  at  a stronghold  of  Islam. 
The  layman  escapes  the  scorn  and  hatred  that  the  Muslim 
feels  for  all  priests,  which  even  a Protestant  minister  may 
easily  incur.  He  is  a living  example  that  true  Christen- 
dom recognises  the  priesthood  of  all  believers,  and  that 
this  priesthood  expresses  itself  in  aid  for  aU. 

Mackay  of  Uganda  found  that  even  among  the  Arabs 
^ Quoted  in  Zwemer,  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam,  p.  392. 


228 


Replanting  in  Asia 


he  was  able  to  work,  and  bis  industrial  occupations  gave 
bim  a standing  that  no  ordained  missionary  would  bave 
attained.  He  urged  that  we  should  no  longer  be  content 
with  racing  against  Islam,  but  should  directly  attack 
her  system.  His  experience  warrants  us  in  ranking 
highly  the  service  which  Christian  craftsmen  can  render 
to  the  less  educated  Muslims. 

Medical  science  has  never  flourished  among  them,  and 
in  the  Arabian  Nights  we  find  that  the  doctors  were 
usually  Christian.  From  every  part  of  the  Muslim  field 
comes  testimony  that  surgeons  are  as  acceptable  to-day, 
and  that,  as  in  the  practice  of  our  Saviour,  the  healing 
of  the  body  can  prepare  for  the  healing  of  the  soul.  In 
such  fanatical  lands  as  Morocco,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan, 
hardly  any  other  form  of  work  seems  safe. 

Literary  efiort  is  under  no  ban;  even  as  early  as  830  a.d. 
a Christian  apology  was  cirqulated  at  the  court  of  Baghdad. 
The  printing-press  to-day  opens  the  way  for  this  form  of 
propaganda,  and  nobly  has  it  been  used  in  late  years. 
In  the  districts  where  once  the  Septuagint,  the  Latin 
and  the  Syriac  Bibles  were  produced,  there  is  now  avail- 
able a classical  Arabic  Bible  from  the  press  of  Beirut, 
which  also  pubhshes  books  both  apologetic  and  dogmatic, 
written  expressly  for  Muslims.  Some  workers  are  even 
hardy  enough  to  translate  the  Qur’an  into  various  ver- 
naculars, that  the  ordinary  man  may  read  it  and  recognise 
how  much  rubbish  it  contains.  All  agree  that  the  need 
in  hterature  is  a sympathetic  spirit,  ready  to  acknow- 
ledge and  to  use  the  truth  that  Islam  holds. 


Woman’s  Work 


229 


As  a correlative  to  literature  comes  education.  This 
is  often  undertaken  by  ministers,  but  it  is  most  instructive 
to  find  the  Eev.  W.  H.  T.  Glairdner,  of  Cairo,  recognising 
“ fuUy  that  in  many  ways  laymen  would  have  a better 
chance  than  we  bave,”  ^ and  advocating  lectures  on 
moral,  historical,  scientific,  and  social  subjects.  Let  us 
not  forget  that  when  the  classic  learning  of  the  Museum 
at  Alexandria  was  rivalled  and  excelled  by  Christian 
teachers,  the  first  of  these  showed  his  interest  in  foreign 
missions  by  a tour  to  India,  while  another,  the  great 
Origen,  won  his  fame  while  content  to  be  a layman.  In 
Persia  the  same  agency  is  found  most  effective,  while  in 
Tmkey  nothing  is  found  to  equal  it.  While  the  great 
colleges  of  Constantinople,  Beirut,  and  Urumiah  remind 
us  of  the  height  to  which  this  work  may  be  developed, 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  iUiterate  classes  owe  all 
their  opportunities  to  missions,  either  in  Christian  schools, 
or  to  Muslim  schools  founded  in  rivalry.  Egypt  is  thus 
being  transformed,  and  one  mission  alone  caters  for  two 
thousand  five  hundred  pupils. 

If  all  this  hes  open  for  the  layman,  his  sisters  find  similar 
openings  in  hospital  and  school,  and  also  have  their 
unique  scope  in  the  home.  Mushm  women  are  secluded 
and  grow  up  in  ignorance  and  idleness  ; visits  are  their 
chief  recreation,  steady  visitation  by  Christian  women 
is  generally  welcomed.  Such  intercourse  in  harem  and 
zenana  is  invaluable  for  its  influence  on  women  and  on 
children  at  their  impressionable  age. 

^ Methods  of  Mission  Work  among  Moslems,  p.  69. 


230 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


The  Muslims  are  naturally  jealous  of  the  European 
Powers  on  whom  they  once  encroached,  and  who  now 
are  encroaching  on  them.  Britain,  France,  Holland, 
Russia,  and  Germany  rule  over  more  than  two-thirds  of 
Islam,  and  are  pressing  dangerously  on  the  rest ; their 
missionaries,  therefore,  are  to  a certain  extent  suspect  as 
pohtical  agents.  America  is  hardly  viewed  as  dangerous 
in  this  way,  and  it  follows  that  American  missionaries 
have  certain  advantages  in  Muslim  lands  ; happily  the 
great  societies  have  recognised  this  and  acted  upon  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Cathohc  missions  are  constantly 
beset  with  a corresponding  danger  ; despite  the  famous 
bonhomie  of  the  French,  they  sooner  or  later  develop  a 
double  pohtical  mission — subjection  to  the  Pope,  pre- 
paration for  French  dominion.  If  their  plan  of  ceUbacy 
enables  them  to  pioneer  with  great  speed  and  cheapness, 
they  often  are  imable  to  foUow  up  or  retain  their  initial 
success,  because  they  have  no  home  hfe.  It  might  be 
thought  that  this  defect  could  be  ofiset  by  the  labour  of 
nuns.  But  these  are  by  no  means  as  conspicuous  on  the 
mission  field  as  the  priests  and  friars,  or  as  Protestant 
zenana  workers.  Indeed,  the  whole  Romish  system  is 
antagonistic  to  their  independent  action  ; for  it  is  sacer- 
dotal, depending  upon  priests,  and  no  woman  can  be 
a priest.  Monks  and  friars  were  originally  laymen,  and 
by  their  side  could  naturally  grow  up  corresponding 
associations  of  women  ; but  the  sacerdotal  ideal  trans- 
formed the  men  into  priests,  and  when  Loyola  founded 
his  Company  of  Jesus,  all  in  training  for  the  priest- 


The  Chosen  People 


231 


hood,  he  logically  enough  declined  to  institute  a female 
society.  This  greatest  of  all  Eoman  missionary  agencies 
therefore  is  specially  crippled  by  lacking  all  the  feminine 
side. 

Islam  is  a modified  Judaism,  and  the  problem  of  winning 
the  one  leads  us  back  to  where  we  began,  the  problem  of 
winning  the  Chosen  People.  Whately  and  Paley  might 
see  in  the  preservation  of  this  race  only  a testimony  to 
the  truth  of  Christianity ; but  the  presence  of  twelve 
millions  of  Jews,  still  reading  their  Law,  should  set  us 
asking  what  Cod  means  practically  by  this  remarkable 
phenomenon.  Eight  hundred  Christian  workers  to-day 
attest  that  they  accept  Paul’s  hope  for  the  conversion 
of  his  kindred,  and  labour  for  it  constantly.  The  tenacity 
of  Israel  under  oppression  is  a marvel ; and  when  a Jew 
recognises  Jesus  as  his  Messiah,  he  is  equally  tenacious 
of  the  new  truth.  As  a rule,  he  feels  it  wrong  to  hide 
his  light  under  a bushel,  and  becomes  an  earnest  preacher 
of  the  faith  he  once  denied. 

We  are  justified  in  expecting  a mass  movement  of  the 
Jews,  and  expecting  that  this  shall  lead  directly  to  the 
evangehsation  of  the  world — such  was  the  philosophy  of 
Paul.  Now,  may  we  not  go  a step  further,  and  see  that 
there  are  special  affinities  between  Jew  and  Muslim,  and 
that  the  Jewish-Christian  Missionary  has  this  advantage 
over  the  Centde,  that  he  is  absolutely  exempt  from  the 
charges  of  saint-worship,  sacerdotalism,  and  idolatry  ? If 
our  hope  may  justly  be  that  the  receiving  of  the  Jew  shall 
bring  life  from  the  dead,  then  the  Jewish  hope  may  justly 


232 


Eeplanting  in  Asia 


be  that  be  is  called  to  be  God’s  agent  in  tbe  fulfilment  of 
Abrabam’s  wish — Ob  that  Isbmael  might  live  before  Tbee ! 

0 house  of  Jacob,  come, 

And  walk  with  us  in  light : 

No  more  bewildered  roam 
Like  wanderers  in  the  night ; 

The  Hope  of  Israel  calls  you  near. 

And  Abraham’s  Shield,  and  Isaac’s  Fear. 

Rise,  Jacob,  from  thy  woe^. 

And  thy  Messiah  see : 

He  Who  thy  fathers  chose  ' 

Has  not  forgotten  thee  : 

At  His  command,  we  bid  you  come ; 

Her  Israel,  Zion  welcomes  home, 

Hubn. 


Here  we  close  our  survey  of  wbat  God  bas  wrought  in 
these  nineteen  centuries.  Blundering  and  imperfect  are 
His  agents ; yet  through  all  the  surface  mistakes  and 
failures,  somewhat  of  the  Divine  plan  can  be  discerned. 
Such  plan  our  Lord  may  well  expect  us  to  trace ; but 
too  often  He  has  to  ask  in  sadness,  “ Do  ye  not  yet 
understand  ? ” The  Father  of  glory  is  ready  to  give  us 
a spirit  of  wisdom,  that  having  the  eyes  of  our  heart 
enlightened,  we  may  recognize  the  exceeding  greatness  of 
His  power.  If  these  pages,  with  all  their  imperfections, 
shall  prompt  any  one  to  study  prayerfully  for  himself 
the  missions  of  the  past,  then  that  story  of  God’s  work- 
ing can  purify  motives,  enkindle  zeal,  and  send  afresh  to 
the  feet  of  Him  who  would  always  delay  every  would-be 
missionary  till  he  receives  that  infilling  of  the  Spirit  that 
shall  empower  and  inspire  to  successful  service. 


SEVENTEEN  CENTUKIES  OF  MISSIONS. 


Occupied 
(and  Lost). 

A.D. 

Helpers  (and  Opponents). 

Bible  Versions. 

Corporate. 

Individual. 

30 

The  Church 

Paul,  Thomas,  etc. 

Septuagint 

Ephesus, 

Kome 

(Koman  Empire) 

(NERO) 

100 

Edessa 

Addai,  Tatian 

Alexandria 

Pantsenus 

Latin 

Carthage 

200 

(Celsus) 

Syriac 

(DECIUS) 

(Zoroastrianism ) 

(Porphyry) 

Armenia 

300 

(DIOCLETIAN) 

Eastern 

Empire 

(Mithraism) 

CONSTANTINE 

Coptic 

Spain 

Martin,  Ninian 

Armenian 

Abyssinia 

400 

(Manichasism) 

Frumentius,  Wulf 

Gothic 

Italy 

Chrysostom 

Vulgate 

Ireland 

Honoratus 

Peshito  Syriac 

France 

500 

Persian  Church 

Columba 

Scotland 

Scottish  monks 

Columban,  Gall 

Arabia 

Kentigern 

Ethiopic 

South 

Germany 

600 

Benedictines 

Austin, 

Gregory 

Cochin 

(Arabia) 

(Islam) 

(Muhammad) 

England 

(Egypt) 

Aidan 

Qur’an 

North  China 
(Africa) 

700 

Boniface 

North 

Germany 

(Spain) 

CHARLES 

MARTEL 

Tatary 

800 

CHARLES 

THE  GREAT 

Denmark 

Alcuin 

17 


SEVENTEEN  CENTURIES  OF  mSSlO'RS— Continued. 


Occupied 
(and  Lost). 

A.D. 

Helpers  (and  Opponents). 

Bible  Versions. 

Corporate. 

Individual. 

Sweden 

(China) 

Anskar 

Moravia 

(Tatary) 

900 

Cyril  and  Methodius 

Slavonic 

Bulgaria 

Russia 

HAAKON 

Norway 

1000 

OLAF 

Poland 

Crusaders. 

Peter  the  Hermit 

THE  cm 

Pomerania 

1100 

Knights  of  St.  John 

Wendland 

Knights  Templars 

(Edessa) 

Knights  of  Santiago 

Livonia 

1200 

Order  of  the  Sword 

Tatary  and 
China 

Friars 

Francis  of  Assisi 

Prussia 

Lithuania 

Spain 

1300 

(Lamaism) 

Ramon  Lull 

(All  Asia) 

1400 

(TIMUR) 

Henry  of 

Portugal 

Congo 

(Turkey) 

Spanish  Inquisition 

COLUMBUS 

West  Indies 

Mexico 

Philippines 

1500 

Jesuits 

Francis  Xavier 

Peru,  etc.  ; 
East  Indies 

1600 

Propaganda 

Formosan,  Malay 

Atlantic 

seaboard 

New  England  Co. 

John  Eliot 

Virginian 

California 

(Congo) 

Society  for  Advancing 
Christian  Faith 

Schultz 

Massachusetts 

Tranquebar 

1700 

Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel 

Ziegenbalg 

Tamil, 

Portuguese 

1732 

Moravians  

Open  a new  era 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 


Most  of  the  works  mentioned  here  have  been  published  within 
twelve  years.  A very  few  pioneers  or  classics  are  included.  All 
are  classified  to  correspond  with  the  divisions  of  the  present  work. 

GENERAL 

1894.  R.  N.  CtrsT.  Prevailing  Methods  of  the  Evangelisation  of 

the  non-Christian  World. 

1895.  Allan  Menzies.  History  of  Religion. 

Chalmers  Martin.  Apostolic  and  Modern  Missions. 

1896.  R.  N.  CusT.  The  Gospel  Message. 

1900.  Mrs.  W.  W.  Sctidder.  Nineteen  Centuries  of  Missions. 

W.  N.  Clarke.  A Study  of  Christian  Missions. 

L.  C.  Barnes.  Two  Thousand  Years  of  Missions  before 
Carey. 

1901.  H.  P.  Beach.  Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions. 

J.  - B.  PiOLET.  Les  Missions  Cathohques  Fran9aises  au 

XIX™®  siecle. 

G.  Warneck.  Outline  of  a History  of  Protestant  Missions. 

1904.  Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (Second  Edition). 

Bishop  Montgomery.  Principles  and  Problems  of  Foreign 
Missions. 

1905.  William  Ashmore.  Stones  in  the  Rough. 

Robert  A.  Hume.  Missions  from  the  Modem  View. 

H.  O.  Dwight.  The  Blue  Book  of  Missions. 

Robert  E.  Speer.  Missions  and  Modem  History. 

R.  T.  Stevenson.  The  Missionary  Interpretation  of  History. 

1906.  James  S.  Dennis.  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress 

(Three  volumes  and  Statistical  Appendix ; begun  1897). 
Robert  E.  Speer.  Missionary  Principles  and  Practice. 

1907.  J.  W.  Bashford.  God’s  Missionary  Plan  for  the  World. 
Arthur  J.  Brown.  The  Foreign  Missionary. 

Percy  Gardner.  The  Growth  of  Christianity. 

Bernard  Lucas.  The  Empire  ot  Christ. 

R.  E.  Welsh.  The  Challenge  to  Christian  Missions. 

1908.  Archibald  M'Lean.  Where  the  Book  Speaks ; or,  Mission 

Studies  in  the  Bible. 

Henry  C.  Mabie.  The  Divine  Right  of  Missions. 

235 


236 


Books  of  Reference 


I.  ASIA 

1.  The  Jews 

1894.  F.  J.  A.  Hort.  Judaistic  Christianity. 

1902.  Adoef  Harnack.  Expansion  of  Christianity. 

R.  T.  Herford.  Christianity  in  the  Talmud  and  Midrash. 
1904.  E.  VON  Dobschtttz.  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church. 

2.  Syrians,  Armenians,  and  Persians 

1719-1728.  J.  S.  Assemanni.  Bibliotheca  Orientalis. 

1776.  J.  A.  Assemanni  . . . De  Catholicis  . . . Nestorianorum. 

1893.  Budge.  Thomas  of  Marga’s  Book  of  Governors. 

1894.  WnAXAM  Wright.  History  of  S3Tiae  Literature. 

1896.  P.  C.  CoNTBEARE.  The  Acts  of  Apollonius. 

1898.  F.  C.  CoNYBEARE.  The  Key  of  Truth. 

1899.  F.  C.  Bttrkitt.  Early  Cinistianity  outside  the  Roman 

Empire. 

Williams  Jackson.  Zoroaster,  Prophet  of  Ancient  Iran. 

1900.  Lawrence  H.  Mills.  The  Gathas  of  Zarathushtra. 

1903.  Bhtrhs  ibn  Mxjhaddib.  Chronicon  Orientale. 

1904.  F.  C.  Burkitt.  Early  Eastern  Christianity. 

1906.  R.  E.  Dastoor.  Zarathushtra  and  Zarathuatrianism  in 
the  Avesta. 

3.  India,  South  and  North 

1694.  Geddes.  History  of  the  Church  of  Malabar  (Catholic). 

1863.  Henry  Yule.  Jordan’s  MirabiHa  Descripta. 

1886.  Fa  Heen.  A Record  of  Buddhistic  Kingdoms. 

1888.  G.  A.  Grierson.  The  Mediaeval  Vernacular  Literature  of 
Hindostan. 

1890.  Archibald  Scott.  Buddhism  and  Christianity. 

1892.  R.  S.  CoPLBSTON.  Buddhism,  Primitive  and  Present. 

G.  M.  Rae.  The  Syrian  Church  in  India. 

1896.  E.  W.  Hopkins.  The  Religions  of  India. 

I-Tsing.  Record  of  the  Buddhist  Religion  as  practised  in 
India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  (671-695  a.d.). 

W.  Crooke.  The  Popular  Religion  and  Folklore  of  North 
India. 

1900.  R.  C.  Dutt.  The  Great  Epics  of  Ancient  India,  condensed 
into  English  Verse. 

Rhys  Davids.  Buddhism,  its  History  and  Literature. 

E.  W.  Hopkins.  The  Great  Epics  of  India. 

1903.  Rhys  Davids.  Buddhist  India. 

W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  The  Noble  Eightfold  Path. 


Books  of  Eeference 


237 


1905.  Mbdlycott.  India  and  the  Apostle  Thomas  (Roman 

Cathohc). 

Mueeay  Mitchell.  The  Great  Religions  of  India. 

1906.  G.  A.  Geieeson.  Hinduism  and  its  Scriptures. 

1907.  J.  N.  Cushing.  Christ  and  Buddha. 

Timothy  Richaed.  Guide  to  Buddhahood. 

Timothy  Richaed.  The  Awakening  of  Faith  (on  the 
Buddha). 

Daisetz  Teitaeo  Suzuki.  Outlines  of  Mahayana  Buddhism. 

4.  Ceona,  Buddhist  and  Confucian 

1857.  Hue.  Christianity  in  China,  Tartary,  and  Thibet. 

1866.  Heney  Yule.  Cathay  and  the  Way  thither. 

1877.  Rubeouck.  Recit  de  son  Voyage. 

1880.  J.  Edkins.  Chinese  Buddhism. 

1883.  Wells  Williams.  The  Middle  Eiingdom. 

1895.  L.  A.  Waddell.  The  Buddhism  of  Tibet. 

J.  B.  Chabot.  Histoire  de  Yabh-Alaha  ni. 

1896.  R.  Hilgeneeld.  SeUba’s  Jabalaha  in. 

1900.  The  Journey  of  William  of  Rubruck  (Hakluyt  Society). 

1903.  CoEDiEE.  Yule’s  History  of  Marco  Polo. 

Heysingee.  The  Tao  Teh  King  of  Lao  Tsze,  604-504  b.o. 
1905.  E.  H.  Paekee.  China  and  Religion. 


II.  EUROPE 

1.  The  Geeek  Woeld 

1888.  Hatch.  Organisation  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 

1902.  Adolf  Haenack.  Expansion  of  Christianity. 

1903.  J.  E.  Haebison.  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Greek  Re- 

ligion. 

T.  M.  Lindsay.  The  Church  and  the  Ministry. 

1904.  E.  VON  Dobschutz.  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church. 

1908.  Jambs  Adams.  The  Religious  Teachers  of  Greece. 

2.  The  Roman  Woeld 

1902.  Foakes- Jackson.  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 

1903.  Feanz  Cumont.  Mysteries  of  Mithra. 

1904.  Dill.  Roman  Society. 

3.  The  Uncivilised  Teibes 

1860-1870.  Montalbmbbet.  The  Monks  of  the  West. 

Chantbpie  de  la  Saussaye.  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Teutons. 


238 


Books  of  Reference 


1863.  G.  F.  Macleab.  History  of  Ckristiaii  MissioiLS  during  the 
Middle  Ages. 

1886.  Rhys.  Celtic  Heathendom. 

1893.  R.  C.  Hope.  Legendary  Lore  of  the  Wells  of  England. 

G.  F.  Maclear.  Conversion  of  the  West. 

1894.  Qhillee-Cohch.  Ancient  and  Holy  Wells  of  Cornwall. 

J.  T.  Fowleb.  Adamnani  Vita  S.  Columbse  (with  Intro- 
duction). 

1896.  Lina  Eckehsteih.  Woman  under  Monasticism. 

1897.  G.  T.  Stokes.  Ireland  and  the  Celtic  Church. 

FoT.KTiOBE  Society.  The  Procession  of  the  Ceri  at  Gubbio. 

1900-5.  H.  Tayloe.  The  Ancient  Crosses  and  Holy  Wells  of 
Lancashire. 

1902.  Heeneich  Zimmee.  Celtic  Church  in  Britain  and  Ireland. 

1903.  W.  H.  Hutton.  Influence  of  Christianity  upon  National 

Character. 

1905.  J.  B.  Buey.  life  of  Saint  Patrick. 

Charles  Squebe.  Mythology  of  the  British  Islands. 

1906.  F.  H.  Dudobn.  Gregory  the  Great. 

1907.  H.  M.  Chadwick.  Origin  of  the  English  Nation. 

Lawloe  & Stokes.  Ireland  and  the  Celtic  Church ; Sixth 

edition. 


III.  AFRICA 

General 

1891.  R.  N.  CusT.  Africa  Rediviva. 

1898.  Burton.  Notes  to  the  Arabian  Nights. 

1899.  F.  P.  Noble.  Redemption  of  Africa. 

1900.  H.  H.  Johnston.  Colonisation  of  Africa  by  Alien  Races. 

1901.  H.  R.  Fox-Bouene.  Blacks  and  Whites  in  West  Africa. 


1.  Winning  the  North  Coast 

1774.  Gibbon.  Chapters  41,  43. 

1878.  Julius  Lloyd.  The  North  African  Church. 

1897.  E.  L.  Butcher.  The  Story  of  the  Church  of  Egypt. 

2.  Peogrbss  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia 

1774.  Gibbon.  Chapters  50,  42. 

1855.  Thomas  Weight.  Early  Christianity  in  Arabia. 
1889.  Robertson  Smith.  The  Religion  of  the  Semites. 
1892.  G.  M.  Rae.  Syrian  Church  in  India. 

1900.  S.  M.  Zwembe.  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam. 


Books  of  Eeference 


239 


3.  Extinction  of  Cheistianity  in  the  Noeth 

1891.  S.  T.  Peuen.  Arab  and  African. 

1902.  S.  M.  ZwEMEE.  Raymund  Lull 

1904.  W.  T.  A.  Baebee.  Raymond  Lull. 

1906.  Douglas  Sladen.  Carthage  and  Tunis. 

4.  The  Rival  Missions  to  the  Blacks 

1888.  Blyden.  Islam,  Christianity,  and  the  Negro  Race. 

C.  R.  Haines.  Islam  as  a Missionary  Religion. 

1889.  H.  H.  Jessup.  The  Mohammedan  Missionary  Problem. 

1890.  W.  Muie.  Mahomet  and  Islam. 

1895.  T.  P.  Hughes.  Dictionary  of  Islam. 

1896.  W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  The  Reh^on  of  the  Crescent. 

T.  W.  Aenold.  The  Preaching  of  Islam. 

1897.  W.  Muie.  The  Mohammedan  Controversy ; Life  of 

Mahomet ; The  Cahphate. 

1897.  E.  Sell.  Faith  of  Islam. 

1898.  Bueton.  The  Jew,  the  Gypsy,  and  El  Islam. 

A.  Geigee.  Judaism  and  Islam. 

H.  H.  Jessup.  Setting  of  the  Crescent  and  Rising  of  the 
Cross. 

1901.  W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  Sources  of  Islam. 

E.  Sell.  Essays  on  Islam. 

1904.  W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  Original  Sources  of  the  Qur’an. 

1905.  D.  S.  Maegoliouth.  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of  Islam. 

E.  Sell.  Historical  Development  of  the  Qur’an. 

C.  Paeteidge.  Cross  River  Natives : The  Primitive  Pagans 
of  Obubura  Hill  District,  Southern  Nigeria. 

1906.  E.  Sell.  Islam : its  Rise  and  Progress. 

W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  The  Religion  of  the  Crescent. 

1907.  Dennett.  At  the  Back  of  the  Black  Man’s  Mind. 

H.  K.  Kumm.  The  Sudan. 

Leonaed.  The  Lower  Niger  and  its  Tribes. 


IV.  AMERICA 

1846.  Maequette.  Recit  des  Voyages  et  des  Decouvertes. 

1855.  Helps.  Spanish  Conquest  in  America. 

1877.  Weld.  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  Portuguese 
Dominions  (Jesuit). 

1884.  Reville.  Ancient  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 

1894.  Beine  Lindesay.  Travels  amongst  American  Indians. 
1896-1901.  R.  G.  Thwaites.  The  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied 
Documents. 


240  Books  op  Reference 

1899.  Folklore  Society.  Catalogue  of  the  Folklore  of  Southern 

Mexico. 

1900.  Robert  Youno.  From  Cape  Horn  to  Panama. 

1901.  H.  P.  Beach  and  others.  Protestant  Missions  in  South 

America. 

Hubert  W.  Brown.  Latin  America. 

1902.  Charles  F.  Lummis.  The  Awakening  of  a Nation  (Mexico). 
G.  A.  Dorsey.  The  Mishongnovi  Ceremonies  of  the  Snake 

and  Elephant  Fraternities. 

1903.  W.  E.  Curtis.  Pre-Columbian  Voyages  to  America, 

C.  Lumholtz.  Unknown  Mexico. 

1904.  Folklore  Society.  Folklore  of  the  Musquakie  Indians. 
Hugh  C.  Tucker.  The  Bible  in  Brazil. 

Gertrude  Wilson.  Among  the  Indians  of  the  Paraguay 
Chacos. 

1905.  C.  T.  W.  Wilson  and  W.  Payn.  Missionary  Pioneering  in 

Bolivia. 

1906.  F.  C.  Glass.  Through  the  Heart  of  Brazil. 

1907.  Francis  E.  Clark.  The  Continent  of  Opportunity : The 

South  American  Republics. 

1908.  John  A.  Bain.  The  Developments  of  Roman  Catholicism. 


V.  REPLANTING  IN  ASIA 

General 

1895.  E.  A.  Lawrence.  Modem  Missions  in  the  East. 

1898.  R.  E.  Speer.  Missions  and  Politics  in  Asia. 

1902.  Richard  Temple.  Progress  of  India,  China,  and  Japan  in 

the  Century. 

1903.  R.  E.  Lewis.  Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far  East. 

1907.  F.  A.  McKenzie.  The  Unveiled  East. 

1908.  W.  Remery  Hunt.  Heathenism  under  the  Searchlight. 


1.  The  Jesuits 

1596.  Torsellino.  Vita  F.  Xaverii,  qui  primus  e Societate  Jesu 
in  Indium  et  Japonium  evangelium  inuexit. 

1616.  Ricci.  Apud  Sinas. 

1710.  Memoirs  for  Rome  concerning  the  State  of  the  Christian 
Religion  in  China. 

1893.  D’Orsey.  Portuguese  discoveries,  dependencies,  and  Missions 
in  Asia  and  Africa. 

1902.  Coleridge.  Life  of  Xavier. 


Books  ok  Reference 


241 


2.  The  Islands 

1896.  Ling  Roth.  The  Natives  of  Sarawak  and  North  Borneo. 

1899.  John  Mathew.  Eaglehawk  and  Crow : A Study  of  the 

Austrahan  Aborigines. 

1900.  Walter  W.  Skeat.  Malay  Magic. 

1903.  Arthur  J.  Brown.  The  New  Era  in  the  Philippines. 

W.  Campbell.  Formosa  under  the  Dutch. 

A.  W.  Murray.  Wonders  in  the  Western  Isles. 

1907.  Campbell  N.  Moody.  The  Heathen  Heart  (in  Formosa). 

1908.  Robert  Lamb.  Saints  and  Savages  in  the  New  Hebrides. 

3.  India 

1891.  Monier  Williams.  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism. 

1897.  Murray  Mitchell.  Hinduism,  Past  and  Present. 

1899.  A.  R.  Cavalier.  In  Northern  India. 

1903.  H.  P.  Beach.  Indian  and  Christian  Opportunity. 

J.  P.  Jones.  India’s  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ. 

J.  C.  Oman.  Mystics,  Ascetics,  and  Saints  of  India. 

Amy  Wilson -Carmichael.  Things  as  They  Are:  Mission 
Work  in  Southern  India. 

1904.  H.  Haigh.  Some  Leading  Ideas  of  Hinduism. 

1905.  W.  E.  Curtis.  Modem  India. 

Murray  Mitchell.  Great  Religions  of  India.  ^ 

Whitney.  Artharva-Veda  Samhita. 

1906.  Fielding  Hall.  A people  at  School  (Burmah). 

Amy  Wilson-Carmichael.'  Overweights  of  Joy. 

1907.  J.  C.  Oman.  The  Brahmans,  Theists,  and  Muslims  of  India. 
E.  M.  Wherry.  Islam  and  Christianity  in  India. 

1908.  Transformed  Hinduism. 

4.  China 

1896.  China  Mission  Handbook. 

1900.  Chang  Chih  Tung.  China’s  Only  Hope. 

1901.  J.  C.  Gibson.  Mission  Problems  in  South  China. 

1903.  John  Ross.  Mission  Methods  in  Manchuria. 

1904.  A.  J.  Brown.  New  Forces  m Old  China. 

1907.  J.  Hedley.  Our  (M.N.C.)  Mission  in  North  China. 

J.  MacGowan.  Sidelights  on  Chinese  life. 

Timothy  Richard.  Conversion  by  the  Million  in  China. 
Arthur  H.  Smith.  China  and  America  to-day. 

Arthur  H.  Smith.  The  Uphft  of  China. 

' ' W.  E.  SooTHiLL.  A Typical  (Methodist)  Mission  in  China. 
Jacob  Speicher.  The  Conquest  of  the  Cross  in  China. 

1908.  C.  Campbell  Brown.  Chma  in  Legend  and  Story. 

Elliot  L.  Osgood.  Breaking  down  Chinese  Walls.  From 

a Doctor’s  Viewpoint. 


242 


Books  of  Reference 


5.  Japan 

1894.  G.  M.  CoBBOLD.  Religion  in  Japan. 

1901.  M.  L.  Gordon.  Thirty  Eventfii  Years. 

1903-1905.  D.  C.  Greene.  The  Christian  Movement  in  relation  to 
the  New  Life  in  Japan. 

1905.  E.  W.  Clement.  Christianity  in  Modem  Japan. 

1908.  A.  Lloyd.  The  Wheat  among  the  Tares.  Studies  of 
Buddhism  in  Japan. 

6i  Persia,  Syria,  and  Arabia 

1892.  Maclean  and  Brown.  The  Cathohcos  of  the  East  and  his 
People. 

1903.  W.  E.  Curtis.  To-day  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 

1904.  W.  A.  Shedd.  Islam  and  the  Oriental  Churches. 

W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  The  Leading  Mohammedan  Objections  to 
Christianity. 

1905.  E.  M.  Wherry.  The  Muslim  Controversy, 

7.  Islam  and  Judaism 
1897.  Muir.  The  Beacon  of  Truth. 

1899.  W.  T.  Gidney.  The  Jews  and  their  Evangelisation. 

1902.  A.  E.  Thompson.  A Century  of  Jewish  Missions. 

1906.  S.  H.  Wilkinson.  In  the  Land  of  the  North, 

1907.  Israel  Abrahams.  Judaism. 

(Esterley  and  Box.  The  Modem  Synagogue. 

Philipson.  The  Reform  Movement  in  Judaism. 

A.  VAN  Sommer  and  S.  M.  Zwemer.  Our  Moslem  Sisters. 

W.  S.  C.  Tisdall.  The  Muhammadan  Objections  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

1908.  S.  M.  Zwemer.  Islam,  a Challenge  to  Faith. 


Index 


Abyssinia,  116  £F.,  149. 

Addai  in  Edessa,  15. 

Afrahat  in  Persia,  19. 

Africa,  109  ff. 

Aidan  at  Lindisfarne,  85. 

Amateur  missionaries,  145. 
America,  153  £E. 

Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor — 
influenced  by  Buddhism,  30. 
allied  with  Europe,  58. 
evangelised  by  a native,  61. 
won  before  Constantine,  67. 
subdued  by  Islam,  98. 

Anchieta  in  Brazil,  155. 

Anskar  in  Norway,  92. 

Arabia,  115  ff. 

Arabian  Nights  and  Muslim  cus- 
toms, 23,  137,  228. 

Arabic  Bibles,  25, 99, 119, 122,  228. 
Aramaic  literature,  15,  17. 
Aristides,  62,  111. 

Armenia,  16. 

Asia,  3 ff.,  191  ff. 

Asoka,  28,  30. 

Australia,  206. 

Authority  of  missionaries,  64, 
87,  103. 

Avesta,  sacred  book  of  Zoroas- 
trians,  20. 

Babylon  in  Egypt,  headquarters 
of  Coptic  Christianity — 
Jews  converted.  111. 

Destroyed  by  Muslims,  123. 
Babylon  in  Persia,  nominal  head- 
quarters of  Asiatic  Chris- 
tianity, 20. 

Bar-Daisan,  the  theologian,  15. 


Benedict,  the  monk,  72,  75. 
Berbers  neglected,  113;  and  lost, 
126. 

Bible- 

derived  from  Jews,  13,  60. 
ancient  use,  82,  88,  101,  104. 
modern  use,  143,  208. 

Catholic  disuse,  162. 
Translations — 

Abyssinian,  118. 

. Arabic,  25,  99,  119,  122,  228. 
Chinese,  42,  216. 

Coptic,  112,  123. 

English,  88. 

Formosan,  202. 

Gothic,  88,  104. 

Latin,  90,  101,  114. 

Malay,  28. 

Negro,  143. 

North  India,  204,  208. 
Pahlavi,  none,  21. 

Persic,  22,  26. 

Portuguese,  203. 

Slavonic,  96. 

Syriac,  15,  20. 

Tamil  and  Singhalese,  28,  203. 
Tatar,  45. 

Bibliography,  235 
Boniface,  the  organiser,  89. 
Brahmans  or  Hindu  priests — 
adaptive,  17,  31,  198. 
advance  exclusive  claims,  32, 
211. 

gain  North  India,  38. 
gain  South  India,  204. 
possible  friends,  39. 

Brazil,  155,  159,  164. 

Britain,  73,  77. 


244 


Index 


Buddhism — 
origin  in  India,  29. 
its  defects,  31,  38. 
influence  on  Christianity,  19. 

on  Mani,  75. 
decay  in  India,  35. 
in  Burma,  209. 

Ceylon,  202. 

China,  41,  217. 

Japan,  220. 

Tatary,  31. 

Tibet,  50. 

Burma,  209. 

Carey,  the  strategist,  208. 
Carthage  won,  113;  and  lost,  125. 
Caste,  204,  211. 

Catholics  needing  missions,  173  ff., 
184  fi. 

Celibacy — 

its  origin,  12,  19,  29. 
weakness,  20,  229. 
in  Egypt,  112. 

Persia,  19. 

Syria,  16. 

Ceylon,  202,  209. 

Charles  the  Great,  91,  96,  103, 105. 
China,  40  ff.,  195,  215  ff. 
Clementine  Homilies,  7,  9. 
Columba  in  the  Hebrides,  81. 
Columban  on  the  Continent,  83. 
Compromise  with  heathen  cus- 
toms— 

African,  148. 

European  idolatry,  91,  105. 
Greek,  65,  67. 

Irish,  80. 

Mexican,  167. 

Norse,  94. 

Spanish,  72. 
by  Jesuits,  194,  198. 

Confucius,  41,  217. 

Copts,  111  ff.,  122,  124,  149. 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes,'27. 

of  Charles  the  Great,  91,  96. 
Edward  i.,  46. 

Olaf,  92. 

in  America,  106,  166. 

Egypt,  122,  224. 

Languedoc,  76,  184. 


Crusades — 
in  Prussia,  97. 

Spain,  98,  153,  224. 

Syria,  4. 

Cuthbert  of  Northumbria,  86. 
Cyrene  won.  111,  113;  andlost,125. 
Cyril  and  the  Slavs,  96. 

Danish  missions,  204,  207. 

“ Divine  Song,”  33. 

Dogmas,  permanence  of  form  ? 
181. 

Druids  won,  80  ; customs  dropped, 

86. 

Dutch  missions,  202,  209. 

Ecuador,  168. 

Edessa,  early  centre,  15,  175. 

destroyed,  20. 

Education — 

neglected  by  Rome,  100,  144. 
adopted  by  Islam,  100,  123, 144. 
for  Muslims,  229. 
in  Africa,  113,  144. 

America,  158,  166  ff.,  174. 
Burgundy,  83. 

China,  216. 

Ireland,  80,  144. 

Japan,  221. 

Scotland,  82. 

Eras  of  missions,  xv. 

Europe,  57  ff. 

Extension  vital  to  Christianity, 
xiv. 

Formosa,  202. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  227. 

Francis  Xavier,  50,  193,  197. 
Friars — 

in  America,  153,  162,  166. 

Asia,  192,  196. 

Morocco,  127. 
the  Philippines,  201. 
Frumentius  in  Abyssinia,  117. 

Gaul  evangelised,  72,  77,  83. 
Geography  of  missions,  xv. 

Glass  of  Brazil,  164,  168,  170. 
Goths,  88. 

Great  Epic,  31  ff.,  210. 

Greeks,  59  ff. 


Index 


245 


Gregory  Illuimnator  in  Armenia, 
16. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  in  Ana- 
tolia, 65. 

Gregory  of  Rome,  statesman,  76, 
85,  101. 

Grierson’s  links  between  modern 
Hinduism  and  Christianity, 
33,  212. 

Guiana,  174. 

Hayti,  165. 

Hegesippus,  7,  13. 

Hereditary  bishoprics — 
in  Armenia,  17. 

Cochin,  28. 

Palestine,  8. 

Hinduism,  once  akin  to  Zoroas- 
trianism, 29. 

modified  by  Brahmans,  31. 
absorbing  Christian  elements, 
32  fE. 

modern,  209. 

Iceland,  93. 

Idolatry,  the  old,  91,  101,  120, 
166,  196. 

the  new,  opposed  hy  Persia,  22. 
in  America,  169. 

Asia,  40,  213. 

Europe.  69. 

India,  27  ff.,  197,  207  ff. 

Industrial  work,  102,  158,  163, 
201,  228. 

Iona,  82,  85. 

Ireland,  77. 

Islam — 

a modified  Judaism,  132,  137, 
142. 

influenced  by  Zoroastrianism, 
23. 

by  Christianity,  26. 
a brotherhood,  121,  139. 
its  progress,  125  ff.,  149. 
welcomed  by  Buddhists,  35. 
paralysing  Christian  missions, 
23,  98. 

a rival  mission,  109  ff. 
its  rival  message,  134  ff. 

tolerance,  46,  98,  122. 
in  China,  217. 


Islam — 
in  India,  212. 

Persia,  223. 

as  a field  of  missions,  224  ff. 
Italy  hard  to  win,  71. 

Jamaica,  165. 

Japan,  194,  219. 

Java,  203,  225. 

Jesuits — 

in  America,  155  ff.,  166, 168, 184. 
Asia,  191  ff. 

Jesus  Christ — 

primarily  the  Redeemer,  xiii, 
5,  12. 

a missionary,  5. 

training  missionaries,  xiii,  51. 

a teacher,  10. 

the  forms  of  history,  13. 

Jews,  4-14. 

make  the  great  refusal,  6. 
their  contribution  to  missions, 
10,  180. 

missionary  pioneers,  11,  15,  59. 
in  Arabia,  117  ff. 

Egypt,  111. 

North  Africa,  127. 
influence  the  Qur’§,n,  132,  137. 
missions  to,  231. 

Keltic  tribes,  77  ff. 

Kentigern  in  Britain,  81. 

Kings  converted,  51,  81,  103. 
to  Buddhism,  28,  30. 

Abyssinia,  118. 

Armenia,  16. 

Cochin,  27. 

Ireland,  80. 

Muscovy,  96. 

Northumbria,  86. 

Nubia,  118. 

Rome,  66,  74. 

Krishna,  32. 

Lao  Tsze,  42. 

Laymen  and  Islam,  227. 

Literature  among  the — 

Chinese,  42. 

Greeks,  66. 

Indians,  208. 

Irish,  82  ff.,  88. 


246 


Index 


Literature  among  the — 

Muslims,  228. 

Persians,  25. 

Loyola,  193. 

Lull,  227. 

Mackay  of  Uganda,  227. 

Maha  Bharata,  31  £E.,  210. 
Manichaeism,  75. 

Maoris,  205. 

Marquette,  162. 

Martin  of  Tours,  77,  79,  83,  101. 
Mecca,  pagan,  116;  Muslim,  120. 
Medical  work,  163,  228. 

Mexico,  166. 

Minim,  Christian  Jews,  6. 
Mithraism,  73  £f. 

Mongols — 
in  China,  44. 

Mongolia,  49. 

Russia,  97. 

Monks — 

Buddhist  30,  42. 

Manichaean,  75. 

Muslim,  147. 

evolution  of  Christian,  78,  178. 
in  Egypt,  112. 
as  missionaries,  79,  101. 
Monuments- — 
in  India,  28. 

China,  43. 

America,  83,  157. 

Moravia,  96. 

Moravians,  130,  154,  174,  199. 
Muhammad — 
life,  119. 

influenced  by  Jewish  Christians, 

9. 

character,  139. 

Native  churches,  relation  to 
missionaries — 

Africa,  130. 

Anatolia,  64. 

Britain,  86. 

Ireland,  80. 

Japan,  195. 

New  Zealand,  206. 

Native  ministers,  175. 

Africa,  129. 

America,  162,  175. 


Native  ministers — 

China,  43,  197. 

Europe,  103. 

India,  28. 

Jamaica,  166. 

Pacific,  201. 

Nazarenes,  6-9. 

“ Nestorians,”  20,  27.  See  Persian 
Christianity. 

New  Zealand,  205. 

Ninian,  79. 

Nobili,  198. 

Norsemen,  92. 

Nubia,  118,  124. 

Officialism,  its  risks,  13  ff. 

Olopun  in  China,  42. 

Organisation  of  Churches,  180. 
African,  114. 

Chinese,  218. 

Greek,  63. 

Jewish,  8,  62. 

Roman,  71. 

Pacific  Islands,  200. 

Pahlavi,  a Parthian  script  of 
Persian,  22. 
in  India,  28. 

Pantsenus  in  Baluchistan,  17,  27, 
117. 

Papua,  206. 

Paraguay,  156. 

Parsls,  18  fi. 

Patriarch  of  Babylon,  20. 

head  of  Asiatic  Christians,  43. 
always  a subject,  20,  23,  44. 
persecuted  by  Muslims,  46. 
despised  by  Europeans,  48. 
ruined  by  Mongols,  48. 

Patrick  no  missionary,  80. 
Persecution  by  Christians,  66, 
74,  91,  99,  112,  118. 

Jews,  6 ff.,  118. 

Muslims,  122  ff. 

Rome,  66,  112. 

Persian  Christianity,  17-26. 
missions  to  India,  31. 

China,  42,  44,  45. 

Peru,  166,  168. 

Pharisees  oppose,  6. 

I Philippines,  201. 


Index 


247 


Philosophers  oppose,  65 ; and 
influence,  68. 

Poetry — 

English,  88. 

German,  90. 

Indian,  31,  35,  37,  211. 

Syriac,  14. 

Polytheism — 

American,  167  if. 

Greek,  68. 

Indian,  29. 

Italian,  72. 

Prester  John,  45. 

Professional  missionaries — 
a Jewish  legacy,  11. 
rare  in  the  Middle  Ages,  101. 
Muslim,  146. 

Propaganda,  199. 

Protestant  missions — 
since  1800  a.d.,  xv. 
in  Asia,  4,  207  ff. 

Prussia,  97. 

Qur’an,  its  origin,  131  ff. 
standardised,  121. 
a Christian  weapon,  213,  228. 

Rabbula  in  Persia,  20. 

Ramanand  the  Hindi  poet,  35. 
Red  Indians,  155  £E. 

Rivalry  of  missions — 

Africa,  114. 

Arabia,  117. 

Britain,  85. 

China,  48. 

Moravia,  96. 

South  Seas,  201. 

Spain,  99. 

Romanism — 

reorganised,  193. 

Asiatic,  192. 

European,  186. 

North  American,  183  fit. 

South  American,  167  £f. 

Rome — 

evangelised,  70. 
evangelising  and  organising, 
85  fi.,  113. 

Rubruck,  193. 

Russia — 

evangelised,  96. 


Russia — 

evangelising,  219. 

Sacerdotalism — 
in  India,  31  ff.,  211. 
opposed  by  Muhammad,  135, 
227. 

cramps  women’s  work,  230. 
Sacramentalism  from  Greeks,  65, 
69. 

Saint-worship,  68,  136. 

Sanusis  of  the  Sahara,  147. 
Schwartz  in  India,  208. 

Septuagint — 

executed  by  Jews,  60. 
adopted  by  Christians,  61. 
Serampur,  208. 

Shinto,  220. 

Simplicity,  51. 

Slavery — 

Christian,  85,  92,  103,  129. 
Muslim,  147. 

Spanish,  160. 

Spain — 

evangelised,  72. 
lost,  98. 

regained,  99,  153. 

State  influence,  124,  150,  204,  215, 
221,  230. 

Strategy,  200. 
of  Carey,  208. 

Gregory,  76. 

Paul,  51,  60,  231. 
in  Asia,  none,  51. 

Europe,  104. 

Sumatra,  225. 

Sunday  schools,  180. 

Support  of  missionaries,  102. 
our  Lord,  12. 

Paul,  62. 

Boniface,  90. 

Support  of  Chinese  pastors,  218. 
Syrian  Christianity — 
ancient,  14  ff. 
modern,  175,  223. 

Talmudic  view  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, 8. 

Tamil  Bible,  28,  203. 

Tamil  Church  in  Cochin — 
founded,  27. 


248 


Index 


Tamil  Church  in  Cochin — 
influence  in  India,  34,  37. 
fossilised,  50,  212. 

Taoism — 
founded,  42. 

altered  by  Christianity,  48,  50. 
stagnant,  217. 

Tatars  in  China,  43. 
in  India,  31. 

Mongolia,  44. 

Persia,  46. 

Tatian,  15,  62,  90. 

Theodore  of  Constantinople,  118. 
Theophilus  of  Socotra,  117. 
Thomas  the  missionary,  17. 
church  of,  18,  197. 
in  Asia,  28  fi.,  42  fl. 
supine  to-day,  207. 

Tibet : Buddhist  rites  from  Per- 
sians, 50. 

Timur  destroys  Asiatic  Christi- 
anity, 49. 

Traders  and  missions,  145,  148, 
187,  201,  219. 

Training  of  missionaries — 
in  Asia,  none,  51. 

England,  86. 

Muslims,  146. 
slaves,  85,  92,  103,  129. 
women,  86. 
modern,  199,  201. 

Training  of  native  converts — 
China,  43. 

Europe,  175. 


Training  of  native  converts — 
Jamaica,  166. 

Paraguay,  162. 

Syria,  175. 

Tulasi  Das,  the  poet,  35. 

Variety  desirable,  177. 
national  basis,  216  ff.,  221. 

Vedic  Hinduism,  29 ; extinct,  39. 

Women — 

Christianity,  40. 
under  Buddhism,  38. 

Islam,  142. 

Mithraism,  74. 
trained  by  Hilda,  86. 
as  missionaries,  90,  229. 

Worship  based  on  synagogue,  13, 
180. 

Wulf  the  Goth,  88,  114. 

Xavier,  50,  193,  197. 

Ximenes,  99. 

Yabh-Alaha  of  Pekin.  45  3. 

Ziegenbalg  of  India,  204. 

Zoroaster  the  reformer,  18. 

Zoroastrianism — 
in  Arabia,  119. 

China,  43. 

Persia,  18  ff. 
the  Qur’an,  133. 
leavening  Islam,  23. 


MORGAN  AND  SCOTT  LTD.  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 


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